Top 10 Most Interesting Facts about Prehistoric Chemical Elements

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Ngày cập nhật gần nhất: 15/3/2026

Content

1. Carbon (C)

2. Sulfur (S)

3. Fullerene and Nanocarbon Tubes

7. Copper (Cu)

8. Tin (Sn)

9. Lead (Pb)

10. Mercury (Hg)

1. Carbon (C)

Diamonds and graphite have long been known and naturally occur in the Earth's crust. Graphite, also known as grafit in Greek, meaning to write.

Carbon has two interesting stories:
Why choose carbon-12 isotope in the atomic mass unit (AMU) scale of chemical elements (CE)?
In 1803, hydrogen, being the lightest element, was chosen as the AMU unit. However, since most CEs easily form compounds with oxygen as oxides, the atomic masses had to be compared to the atomic mass of oxygen. Therefore, 1/16 of the oxygen atom was chosen as the unit of measurement and called the oxygen unit.

With scientific advancements, a contradiction arose. In the early 20th century, natural oxygen was determined to be a mixture of isotopes. Scientists still considered the oxygen unit as 1/16 of natural oxygen (meaning all isotopes of oxygen), but for atomic physics, this unit was inaccurate. Physicists recognized the oxygen unit as 1/16 of the oxygen-16 isotope.

The measurement unit with two scales is the physical scale and the chemical scale. To resolve the contradiction, the International Conference decided to switch to carbon in 1961. The advantage is that natural carbon only has 2 stable isotopes, C-12 and C-13, with C-12 accounting for 98.892% of all carbon atoms.

So, since 1961, scientists have unanimously chosen the atomic mass unit as 1/12 of the C-12 atom, denoted as amuC.

Using C-14 isotope to determine the age of archaeological plant remains
Cosmic rays are dangerous due to neutron emissions. Thanks to the high-altitude ozone layer, it blocks cosmic rays from reaching the Earth's surface. Cosmic neutron particles interacting with N-14 isotopes create the C-14 isotope. C-14 is not stable and undergoes decay in nature with a half-life period T=5570 years.

Due to photosynthesis, plants absorb CO2 in the atmosphere for growth. CO2 in the atmosphere contains a tiny portion of 14CO2 (for every 1 million normal CO2 molecules, there is 1 molecule of 14CO2).

Because the C-14 production reaction in the atmosphere is continuous, when the plant is still alive, the C-14 content remains almost unchanged. When the plant dies and photosynthesis no longer occurs, the C-14 amount gradually decreases according to the above-mentioned decay cycle.

If you take a piece of wood of the same type and size, but freshly cut compared to a piece of wood from clothing in ancient tombs, you can immediately determine how much C-14 remains. And we can quickly find the age of the tomb.

Carbon-14 (C-14)

2. Sulfur (S)

Nature hosts numerous sulfur deposits, often found near active volcanic areas, underground.

In textbooks, you probably learned about the method of synthesizing sulfur from nature called the Frasch method. Here's a funny story about it:

In 1890, an engineer named Herman Frasch decided to use an unconventional method to extract sulfur from the ground, 150 meters below. Through a borehole to the sulfur-containing layer, he lowered a 15 cm diameter pipe and inserted a smaller 8 cm diameter pipe. Frasch theorized that if hot water was pumped through the large pipe, the sulfur there would melt and could be pumped to the surface through the smaller pipe. At that time, this method seemed unusual and bold to the point of sparking heated debates. There was a 'famous figure' who didn't believe in this method and publicly promised to consume all the sulfur Frasch extracted.

Before long, a stream of liquid substance indeed flowed from the borehole to the surface. In the first day alone, it created a mountain of high-quality sulfur. But, of course, it was inedible. Our 'famous figure' was left baffled!
And, of course, after several improvements, we now have the sulfur extraction method from underground as we know it today.

Sulfur Extraction using the Frasch Method

3. Fullerene and Nanocarbon Tubes

For a long time, two crystal structures of carbon, diamond, and graphite, have been known. But since 1970, scientists proposed the existence of a carbon crystal structure in the form of a closed sphere.

In 1985, a research group including Harold Kroto, Sean O'Brien, Robert Curl, and Richart Smalley was investigating chemical conditions outside of space using lasers and modern spectroscopy. They were looking for evidence revealing the chemical nature of interstellar matter. Instead, during that week in 1985, they discovered a group of 60 carbon atoms, specifically 60 atoms, with a structure resembling a spherical ball. This could be the third crystallization of carbon called fullerene or Buckyball, named after the American architect Richard Buckminster-Fuller (1895 - 1983). He used this structure to build houses and exhibition halls. Today, in addition to C60, scientists have discovered C70, C76, C84, C90, C94.

By 1991, the significance of fullerene became even more significant when Japanese scientist Osawa Eiji discovered another unique cage-like structure. It is C60 in the form of a tube, known as nanocarbon. This object has remarkable properties. It is harder than diamond, can be stretched 100 times more than steel, making it the stiffest fiber that can be created. Surprisingly, it is also six times lighter than steel.

Iron

7. Copper (Cu)

In nature, there are various copper ores in the form of sulfides, combined with iron ores, or as carbonates. Determining the exact age of copper is challenging. However, it is evident that copper was known before the Bronze Age, possibly being the first metal used by humans around 4000 BCE. In ancient Egypt, tools such as axes, knives, and household utensils made of copper have been discovered. Tin was added to create harder copper alloys around 3500 BCE in Mesopotamia. The term 'copper' originates from this period.

Among ancient copper mines, the most famous is on the island of Cyprus, and from there, copper was named in Latin as cuprum.

Bronze Drums

8. Tin (Sn)

Tin has been in use for approximately 3000 - 4000 years BCE.

There are two fascinating stories about tin:

The Tin's Sound: Imagine you have two identical sticks. One is a soldering stick, and the other is a tin stick. How would you differentiate between the two sticks using a simple physics method? Both sticks have a silver color, similar weight, and softness. To distinguish between them, you just need to bend them and listen to the sound they make. The tin stick, when bent, produces a characteristic crisp cracking sound. This is due to the shift and deformation of crystals forming gray tin. This phenomenon does not occur when bending a soldering stick or any tin alloy.
Tin Disease: The military manager's hands tremble as he opens the warehouse door. The sudden presence of the inspector doesn't promise anything good. However, he maintains a calm and polite demeanor. We still have tin buttons for soldiers' uniforms. - The manager expands the warehouse and reports. - Let's see how you store them. Opening the box, still with a respectful face, the manager hastily approaches the box, grabs the lid, and... freezes in astonishment: the box is full to the brim, not with shiny tin buttons with two-headed eagle motifs, but with some grayish powder. - Do all your boxes have buttons like this? The manager is terrified as every box is filled with that powder. Despite the freezing cold outside, the manager feels his face burning. The inspector angrily sends some samples of the powder to his laboratory. A few days later, upon receiving the results, the inspector is astonished: the analyzed powder is tin! So, what happened? At only 13.2 degrees Celsius, white tin turns into gray tin. Gray tin is not in crystalline form but in powder form. The uniform buttons disappeared due to the phase transition of white tin to gray tin. And this phenomenon is called tin disease.

White Tin

9. Lead (Pb)

Excavations reveal that humans discovered lead 3000 - 4000 years BCE. It appeared in coins, statues... Even the ancient hanging gardens of Babylon had lead pipes for water supply.

In ancient times, lead was often confused with tin until the pre-17th-century alchemy era. Traces of this confusion are found in the languages of some Eastern European countries such as Poland and Czechia. Lead doesn't exist in its free state, so humans have known how to smelt lead from ancient times. The main lead ores are lead sulfide PbS, lead carbonate PbCO3, and the melting point of lead is only about 327 degrees Celsius.

Lead is one of the soft metals. Ancient letters have been found written on lead plates, rolled up and placed in tubes in the 5th and 6th centuries BCE.

Why do some ancient artworks turn black over time? The paint used for painting often contains lead compounds. Artworks gradually darken because the air contains hydrogen sulfide H2S, transforming lead compounds into black PbS.

If a solution of hydrogen peroxide H2O2 is used for washing, it will turn into white lead sulfate:
PbS + 4H2O2 ---> PbSO4 + 4H2O.

Why is there lead in gasoline? It's not that gasoline has impurities of lead, but lead is intentionally added to gasoline to prevent knocking. When there's a mixture of fuel (gasoline) and air (containing O2), just a spark from the spark plug will initiate combustion, causing the engine's piston to move. However, there are various engine types with different power due to their ability to compress the fuel-air mixture more strongly before the spark. But this can lead to unexpected explosions. To avoid this, a liquid anti-knock substance is added to gasoline: tetraethyl lead Pb(C2H5)4. Not much is needed, just 1g per liter of gasoline.

It's worth mentioning that this compound is highly toxic, so people should absolutely not use their mouths to suck on a funnel tube to extract gasoline.

Lead Element (Pb)

10. Mercury (Hg)

Mercury has been found in ancient Egyptian tombs dating back 3000 years BCE. Spain is renowned for mercury mining, where it is found naturally under deep pits in high mountainous regions. Extracting mercury from ore is simple due to its low chemical reactivity.

Which metal in the world exists in a liquid state both in summer and winter? What liquid is heavier than mercury? Is there a metal that can dissolve other metals at room temperature? The term amalgam refers to the alloy of mercury with other metals. Thanks to amalgamation (the dissolving of metals into mercury), many church domes can be coated with real gold (as constructing a dome with gold is challenging due to gold's structure not being suitable for such large vaulted constructions). Gold is dissolved into mercury, the solution is brushed onto a thin copper sheet used for the dome, heated to evaporate the mercury, leaving behind the gold. Mercury also has the unique property of not wetting, so it forms beautiful silver spheres.

Mercury is a highly toxic substance, and to warn of its danger, some say touching mercury can cause infertility. However, a small amount of mercury touching the skin may cause allergies and redness.

In the 16th century, King Eric XIV of Sweden was overthrown by his brother. History suggests that the king might have been poisoned, but it couldn't be proven. It wasn't until four centuries later, with advanced analytical methods, that it was determined the king was poisoned with mercury, as the mercury concentration in his hair was many times higher than normal.

There's also the story of King Charles II of England in the 17th century. At that time, the king had his own laboratory in the palace. He heated and distilled mercury, a substance prevalent in the alchemical era. After a while, he became irritable, experienced convulsions, and kidney inflammation—signs of inhaling mercury vapor toxicity.

In 1810, the British watercraft Triumph carrying mercury had a barrel break, and mercury spilled out, causing over 200 people to suffer from mercury poisoning.

Mercury and the Wetting Phenomenon

Frequently Asked Questions

What historical significance does carbon have in the context of atomic mass units?

Carbon, specifically the C-12 isotope, became the standard for atomic mass units in 1961 due to its stability and prevalence in nature. This decision resolved earlier contradictions related to the measurement of atomic masses based on oxygen isotopes.

How is the age of archaeological plant remains determined using carbon-14?

The age of archaeological plant remains is determined by measuring the remaining C-14 isotopes after the plant's death. Since C-14 decays over time, scientists can calculate how long it has been since the plant stopped photosynthesis, providing an accurate age estimate.

What is the Frasch method and how does it relate to sulfur extraction?

The Frasch method, developed by Herman Frasch in 1890, involves pumping hot water into underground sulfur deposits to melt and extract sulfur. This unconventional technique successfully produced high-quality sulfur and revolutionized sulfur extraction methods.

What are fullerenes and why are they significant in carbon chemistry?

Fullerenes, discovered in 1985, are a unique form of carbon structured as closed spheres. Their discovery expanded the understanding of carbon allotropes, leading to applications in nanotechnology due to their extraordinary strength and lightweight properties.

What is tin disease and how does it affect the storage of tin objects?

Tin disease occurs when white tin transitions to gray tin at low temperatures, resulting in a powdery substance. This phenomenon can cause tin objects, like buttons, to disintegrate into powder, creating storage challenges for manufacturers and collectors.

Why is mercury considered a highly toxic substance in historical contexts?

Mercury is highly toxic and has been associated with historical poisoning cases, such as King Eric XIV of Sweden. Its dangerous properties, including vapor toxicity, have made it a subject of concern and caution in both ancient and modern times.

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