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At its essence, alchemy delves into the transformation of common metals into gold or other valuable metals. Although alchemists have often been dismissed as fringe figures, contemporary researchers are discovering that their ideas held some truth—though not entirely, as many alchemical theories would suggest a radically different reality if proven correct. Nonetheless, certain historical alchemists left a profound mark on the world, albeit in ways they never anticipated.
10. Zosimos Of Panopolis
Living around AD 300, Zosimos of Panopolis existed during a time of significant overlap between various religious, academic, and philosophical traditions. Christianity was still facing persecution from the Romans, and the concept of magic was met with widespread skepticism.
Zosimos’s works were pioneering in their attempt to harmonize conflicting viewpoints, elevating alchemy to a more respected scientific discipline and laying the groundwork for future alchemists. His field of study, termed “Chemeia,” derived from an Egyptian term meaning “black-earth,” symbolized one of the fundamental elements and foundational components of the universe. He connected Chemeia to Chemes, a figure mentioned in the Book of Enoch, believed to be the offspring of a fallen angel and a human woman.
In Roman ideology of the time, occult practices were deemed malevolent, responsible for humanity’s suffering. Zosimos offered a contrasting perspective—demons, aiming to keep humanity in a state of ignorant misery, thrive on human unawareness. Alchemy, in his view, serves as a tool for humanity to understand and control the world, dispelling ignorance and achieving liberation from evil.
While Zosimos played a crucial role in legitimizing alchemy and science, his own alchemical practices bore little resemblance to modern scientific methods. He claimed that much of his insight came from a dream where he conversed with a priest standing before an altar. The priest described being flayed, his flesh and bones burned, and his essence transformed into pure spirit. Zosimos interpreted this as the necessary process for elemental transformation. In a subsequent dream, he revisited the scene, witnessing a bowl-shaped altar filled with boiling water and screaming individuals. A copper figure inscribed an iron tablet as the people perished in the water, which Zosimos saw as a metaphor for the exchange and transformation of properties.
9. Maria The Jewess
Little is known about Maria the Jewess, also referred to as Maria the Hebrew or Maria Hebraea. Most of what we know comes from Zosimos, who frequently cited her in his writings. However, he provided no details about her life or era, only mentioning that she was one of the ancient figures from whom he gained knowledge.
Her teachings laid the groundwork for alchemical principles, emphasizing that all substances share a fundamental similarity, with their final forms determined by their combinations. She believed that both humans and metals are composed of basic elements, and just as nourishing a person sustains life, feeding copper could produce gold. Maria also held that metals, like living beings, possess gender and can die, though death merely signifies a transformation. For instance, burning plants turns them into ash or dyes, and exposing metals to fire alters their form, releasing their essence as vapor.
Her most significant contribution, still widely used today, is the invention of the still. Maria is credited with developing the balneum Mariae, a double-vessel water bath that heats substances without burning them, and the two-vessel still, connected by a tube for liquid collection—a design still favored by modern distillers.
8. Isaac Newton
While Newton’s achievements in mathematics and mainstream science are widely celebrated, his lesser-known pursuits in alchemy are equally intriguing. Here, we delve into his more obscure alchemical endeavors.
During Newton’s era, alchemy had fallen out of favor, seen as outdated and overshadowed by modern scientific advancements. Yet, Newton remained captivated by it, dedicating extensive time to alchemical studies. Although he never published this work as he did his scientific discoveries, he left behind a wealth of writings, particularly focused on his quest for the Philosopher’s Stone.
The Philosopher’s Stone, a legendary substance believed to cure all ailments and transform base metals into gold, was the ultimate goal for many alchemists. Newton immersed himself in deciphering the cryptic writings of earlier alchemists, who often used elaborate codes and metaphors. For instance, silver might be referred to as “Diana’s Doves,” and antimony ore as the “menstrual blood of the sordid whore.” Each alchemist employed unique codes to protect their secrets, and Newton’s interpretations were equally enigmatic—sometimes even more so, as he used standard terms in unconventional ways.
When Newton’s alchemical manuscripts were discovered, scholars at Indiana University began meticulously studying and translating them. In one document, he describes Saturn (often a code for lead, though in Newton’s context, it refers to stibnite ore) having its bonds released, resulting in a vapor that “shines like an orient pearl.” He also mentions the radiant Luna (silver) and the formation of the Green Lyon (also stibnite). His writings are poetic and far removed from the dry tone of scientific literature—especially surprising coming from one of history’s greatest scientific minds.
Newton dedicated roughly three decades to compiling and analyzing the works of earlier alchemists, driven by the ambition to solve the ultimate enigma: the creation of the Philosopher’s Stone, which he believed held the key to unlocking the world’s greatest secrets.
7. Edward Kelley
Kelley remains an enigmatic figure, with more unknowns than confirmed facts about his life. His birth date, appearance beyond a single portrait, the circumstances of his death, and much of his life remain shrouded in mystery. The available information is often conflicting, yet his improbable life inspired literary and theatrical works, such as Ben Jonson’s The Alchemist. Some even claim he was one of Aleister Crowley’s past incarnations.
Kelley is best known for his infamous collaboration with John Dee, a favorite of Queen Elizabeth. Together, they claimed the ability to transform base metals into gold. In 1588, Dee noted that Kelley had revealed alchemical secrets to him. By 1589, Kelley had gained prominence in Emperor Rudolf II’s court in Prague, earning lands, a title, and a knighthood by the following year.
During his time in Prague, Elizabeth reportedly sent multiple requests for a portion of his legendary powder, which was said to turn metals into gold, to fund her military efforts. Rumors circulated that Kelley could place any metal in a crucible, add a mysterious substance, and produce gold through heating and stirring. He also claimed to communicate with angels, who shared their esoteric knowledge with him.
Kelley’s success was fleeting. One account states that in 1591, he became embroiled in a duel with a court official. Despite attempting to flee, he was arrested, imprisoned, and had a broken leg amputated. His subsequent fate is debated—some believe he was transferred between castle prisons and, despite receiving a pardon from Rudolf, chose to end his life by drinking poison due to unbearable pain. Others argue that Rudolf ordered his arrest for failing to deliver the promised alchemical gold and never granted him a pardon.
6. Jean Baptista Van Helmont
Alchemy and chemistry share a peculiar connection, as both sciences focus on transforming substances using their inherent properties. The transition from alchemy to modern chemistry was significantly influenced by the work of a Belgian scientist in the late 16th and early 17th centuries.
Initially trained as a physician, Jean Baptista van Helmont spent nearly a decade studying medicine and the effects of chemicals on the human body. He is credited with discovering carbon dioxide, making groundbreaking strides in understanding digestion, and running an unsuccessful medical practice, largely because he refused to accept payment for his treatments. His contributions to botany were equally remarkable; even while under investigation by the Spanish Inquisition, he conducted experiments measuring the growth of a willow tree and its soil, proving that plants grow through the absorption of water.
Van Helmont believed that alchemy was the foundation for understanding both the human body and the natural world. He argued that no scientific progress could occur until alchemy was fully understood. His research into plant growth was deeply rooted in his alchemical beliefs, particularly the concept of a prima materia. Unlike the traditional elements, he proposed that a single substance formed the basis of life, and based on his experiments, he concluded that water was the prima materia for plants.
Although he never asserted that he had discovered how to create a Philosopher’s Stone, he did claim to have witnessed its power. He described it as having the color of “powdered saffron” and recounted using it to transform 200 grams (8 oz) of mercury into gold.
5. Ge Hong
Life occasionally serves up such profound irony that it feels as though someone is deliberately toying with humanity. Ge Hong, a Chinese alchemist active around the fourth century, was born into a time of civil unrest. His southern accent and lack of eloquence made it difficult for him to thrive in a society that favored northern dialects. Despite this, he achieved considerable success, eventually earning the title of Marquis of the Region Within the Pass for his military strategies. However, his true passions lay in philosophy, alchemy, and the pursuit of immortality for all.
Ge Hong held several beliefs about achieving immortality, chief among them being the concept of a universal “oneness” that enveloped everything. To harness this oneness, he emphasized the necessity of cultivating profound inner peace and tranquility. He also believed that this energy could be amplified through the use of herbal medicines and alchemically created compounds. According to his theory, gold produced through alchemy would never burn, decay, or vanish, and consuming such gold would transfer its immortal qualities to the human body.
During his alchemical experiments, Ge Hong accidentally discovered something that had the opposite effect of granting life. Hidden within his writings is one of the earliest references to the combination of sulfur and saltpeter—the foundational components of gunpowder. Saltpeter was a common ingredient in Eastern alchemy, more prevalent than in Europe due to its abundance in Asia. As early as the third century, alchemists noted the distinctive purple flame produced by burning saltpeter. Ge Hong mixed it with sulfur, clay, and other minerals in an attempt to create a substance that could turn lead into alchemical gold, believed to confer immortality. While true gunpowder wouldn’t emerge until around AD 850, it’s strikingly ironic that the foundation for modern weaponry was laid by an alchemist seeking eternal life.
4. Paracelsus
Paracelsus was an intriguing blend of chemist, alchemist, and progressive physician. In the early 16th century, the prevailing belief was that the body’s ailments were governed by the four humors, a theory originating from ancient Greece. Much of Paracelsus’s alchemical work was rooted in the concept of four elements—earth, air, water, and fire—each associated with a natural spirit: gnomes, sylphs, undines (nymphs), and salamanders, respectively. These spirits, invisible to humans, coexisted with us in perfect harmony, unable to cross elemental boundaries. They lived for 300 to 1,000 years, with gnomes, the earth elementals, having the shortest lifespans.
While Paracelsus wrote about nymphs and gnomes, he also rejected the teachings of ancient Greek medical texts, even burning them. He believed the human body, at its core, was akin to the materials used in alchemy. Just as lead could be transformed into gold, he argued that the body’s organs could be healed using similar principles. This meant applying chemicals to the body, much like they were used in alchemical experiments.
This approach was groundbreaking. The fusion of alchemy and medicine laid the foundation for toxicology, with Paracelsus pioneering the use of alchemical methods on the human body—such as employing mercury to treat syphilis. Critics, who were nearly everyone at the time, were appalled at the idea of using inorganic substances in medicine. Paracelsus, however, urged them to open their eyes, observe, and experiment rather than relying on outdated texts.
Although his theories were revolutionary and paved the way for modern toxicology, many of Paracelsus’s prescribed treatments were ineffective or harmful. He recommended substances like mercury, arsenic, and lead, believing that the dose determined whether something was a poison. His most notable contribution was the creation of laudanum, a discovery that would have a lasting impact on medicine.
3. Hennig Brand
Throughout history, humanity has viewed the world through some peculiar lenses. For instance, human waste wasn’t always considered useless; in the 17th century, it was a highly prized resource for alchemists. Hennig Brand, a German alchemist, may not have discovered gold in his experiments, but he stumbled upon something equally transformative—phosphorus.
In 1669, Brand was pursuing the ancient quest to create gold. Born in 1630, he briefly served as a soldier in Germany before marrying into wealth and retiring from glass-making to focus on alchemy. After his first wife’s death, he remarried another wealthy woman and enlisted her son to assist in his laboratory. Brand theorized that water was the essence of life, possessing mystical properties, especially after passing through the human body. Believing he had found a key ingredient for transmuting base metals into gold, he began his experiments.
Over the course of his research, Brand processed approximately 5,600 liters (1,500 gallons) of urine. The source of this urine is debated, though it’s said he favored beer drinkers’ urine due to its golden hue. His exact methods remain unclear, but it’s believed he allowed the urine to bake in the sun before boiling and extracting separated layers. The final product, when distilled, yielded a white powder with a garlic-like odor that ignited upon contact with air.
The similarity between the names of the Philosopher’s Stone and phosphorus is no accident. Brand was certain that the highly flammable substance he discovered was the Philosopher’s Stone, naming it phosphorus, meaning “light-bearer.” He experimented with it for six years before conceding that while it couldn’t turn metals into gold, it was incredibly useful for producing light. Today, we still rely on phosphorus for this purpose every time we light a match—thankfully without the need for urine.
2. Robert Boyle
Robert Boyle’s contributions are often regarded as foundational to modern chemistry, earning him recognition as one of its pioneers. He conducted experiments with vacuums and air pumps, striving to persuade his peers to adopt this innovative scientific approach.
Like Newton, Boyle also had a deep fascination with alchemy, dedicating significant time to its study.
Similar to many of his peers, Boyle sought to reconcile science with religion. In his articles for Philosophical Transactions, he discussed supernatural phenomena, arguing that such occurrences were evidence of divine intervention. Alchemy, in his view, served as a bridge between scientific understanding and the incomprehensible power of God.
Boyle’s early writings reveal that his interest in science was sparked by the quest for the Philosopher’s Stone. Letters to his sister express his disappointment at failing to uncover the stone, and while the sincerity of his pursuit is debated, he documented his own experiments in transmutation. When he developed a solvent capable of dissolving gold, he described it not only as a means to produce silver but also as a form of Philosophical Mercury, a crucial component in the creation of the Philosopher’s Stone.
Boyle’s work aligns closely with the alchemical text The Twelve Keys of Basil Valentine. The 12 steps outlined in the treatise are believed to lead to the creation of the stone, but their cryptic nature makes the process far from straightforward. Like Newton, Boyle used complex codes to conceal his alchemical research, which has only recently been deciphered.
1. Johann Friedrich Bottger
Bottger, active in the early 18th century, was seen by many as either a magician or a charlatan. At just 19, he was summoned to the court of Frederick Augustus I, who demanded he fulfill his claim of turning base metals into gold. The kingdom was in financial ruin, and making such bold claims proved to be a risky move.
Bottger initially attempted to flee but was captured and placed under house arrest, with the king insisting he produce gold to save his life. Fortunately, the king showed some leniency, allowing Bottger years to work on the task.
In 1709, Bottger didn’t succeed in creating gold but instead discovered something equally valuable: white gold, or porcelain. Although porcelain had been produced in China as early as AD 620, its production methods were a closely held secret. By the 1300s, porcelain reached Europe, where it became a symbol of wealth and status, earning its nickname as white gold and becoming highly sought after by the elite.
For decades, European artists and craftsmen had attempted to replicate porcelain, consistently falling short of success . . . until alchemists entered the scene. Bottger, collaborating with the renowned scientist Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus, initially developed a dense, red stoneware. However, his breakthrough in creating an exact imitation of Chinese porcelain not only satisfied his patron but also marked the birth of European porcelain, a treasure nearly as valuable as gold.
