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Antarctica is one of the most extreme environments on Earth. While this makes exploring the continent a difficult task, its icy expanse hides a wealth of secrets that could help us better understand the climates of distant planets. Scientists are particularly interested in studying how various forms of life, however minuscule, manage to survive and even flourish in such a harsh, desolate, and awe-inspiring landscape.
10. The Gamburtsev Mountain Range
In East Antarctica, mountains rise to astounding heights, lying 600 meters (2,000 ft) beneath the ice. This mountain range stretches over 1,200 kilometers (750 mi), with peaks reaching as high as 3,400 meters (11,200 ft).
The mountain range was first uncovered by a team of Soviet researchers in 1957, located in a remote and inhospitable part of the continent where temperatures frequently plummet below -80 degrees Celsius (-112 °F). Since its discovery, the range has sparked significant interest, though only a few expeditions have ventured to explore it due to its isolation.
In the past decade, scientists have made groundbreaking discoveries about the Gamburtsev range. Researchers spent extensive time on-site gathering data and analyzing radar images, which uncovered deep river valleys, numerous sharp peaks, and even liquid lakes hidden beneath more than 1.6 kilometers (1 mi) of ice.
While scientists confirmed that the mountains weren't formed by volcanic activity, their precise origin remains a mystery. Despite their age of around 100 million years, the mountains appear remarkably young, a feature attributed to the drastically slowed erosion process caused by the icy tomb that encases the range.
9. Lake Vostok
Lake Vostok, officially discovered by Russian scientists in the 1990s, is now recognized as the largest subglacial lake in Antarctica and the third-largest lake by volume on Earth. Located kilometers (2.2 mi) beneath the Antarctic ice, Vostok has been sealed under ice for over 20 million years. Remarkably, studying Vostok could provide scientists with insights into the conditions of Europa (Jupiter’s moon) and Enceladus (Saturn’s moon).
In 2012, Russian scientists successfully drilled through the thick ice and retrieved a water sample from the lake. Unfortunately, the sample was contaminated by the drilling materials, leading the team to conduct a second sampling mission in 2015. During this mission, the team reached the water's surface at an astonishing depth of nearly 3,800 meters (12,500 ft).
Incredibly, the waters of Lake Vostok remain liquid at around -3 degrees Celsius (27 °F) due to the immense pressure exerted by the overlying ice sheet. The scientific community is still uncertain if the most recent sample is entirely pure.
8. Southern Ocean
In 2000, the International Hydrographic Organization officially recognized the vast Southern Ocean as the world’s fifth ocean. This ocean encircles the entire Antarctic continent and consists of the southern parts of the Pacific, Indian, and Atlantic Oceans. The Southern Ocean covers an area about twice the size of the United States, with a maximum depth reaching nearly 7,300 meters (24,000 ft).
The Southern Ocean is home to powerful currents that are crucial in driving global ocean circulation. Additionally, it plays a significant role in absorbing large amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, though this ability may not last indefinitely.
Incredibly, the Southern Ocean has absorbed 15 percent of carbon emissions produced by human activity since the industrial revolution. Researchers are diligently collecting and studying data to understand how this absorption works and what factors cause it to vary throughout different seasons.
7. Pine Island Glacier
Pine Island Glacier (PIG) is notable for being Antarctica’s fastest-melting glacier. Known as an ice stream, PIG’s melt contributes more to rising sea levels than any other glacier on the continent.
In 2015, a giant iceberg measuring 585 square kilometers (225 mi) broke away from PIG after melting from the inside out. Scientists predict that other significant sections of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet could disintegrate within the next few decades. This event would have devastating environmental consequences, leading to a rise in ocean levels and flooding coastal regions around the world.
PIG plays a crucial role in preventing this scenario, acting as a barrier to stop ice streams from flowing into the ocean. However, as sea temperatures increase and warm the glacier from beneath, it may not be long before the PIG barrier fails to act as a plug.
6. Antarctic Fungi
The fungi in Antarctica have adapted to survive in some of the planet's most extreme environments. Despite the continent being completely devoid of trees, wood-decay fungi are devouring the wooden huts left behind by Ernest Shackleton and Robert Scott, two of Antarctica's most famous explorers.
The abandoned huts are over a century old, and it appears that several species of fungi attacking the huts are actually native to Antarctica. The discovery of these endemic fungi was astonishing to scientists, as fungi typically thrive in warm, wooded regions.
Another species of fungus has been feeding on the petroleum that has slowly leaked from old fuel containers left by the same explorers. This Antarctic fungus could potentially be used to address much larger oil spills across the globe.
5. Huge Sand Dunes
While sand is often linked to warmer climates, Antarctica is home to vast, towering dunes. In fact, Antarctica is considered the world’s largest desert. It is extremely cold, dry, and windy, and although the continent is mostly covered in ice, a small portion, less than 1 percent, remains ice-free.
This region contains enormous sand dunes, with the largest dune located in Victoria Valley. It stands a towering 70 meters (230 ft) high and stretches over 200 meters (650 ft) wide. Research on these dunes also provides valuable insights for understanding similar formations on Mars.
Sadly, the dunes of Antarctica are moving at an alarming rate, with their speed tripling in the past 40 years. Scientists are concerned that this rapid movement, averaging 1.5 meters (5 ft) per year, may be closely linked to climate change.
As atmospheric carbon dioxide levels rise and warm the planet, ice begins to melt and lose its grip on the dunes, causing them to shift more quickly. Researchers are eager to safely drill into the valley where these dunes are found in order to further study their behavior.
4. Lake Ellsworth
British researchers first identified this subglacial lake in 1996, and since then, it has captured their attention. Situated 3 kilometers (2 mi) beneath the West Antarctic ice sheet, the lake is believed to have remained untouched for nearly half a million years. Scientists are eager to begin drilling in order to explore one of the greatest questions surrounding subglacial lakes: Is there life down there?
In December 2012, the UK research team drilled into the lake to obtain a water sample, carefully selecting a method that would cause the least disruption to Ellsworth's ecosystem. They developed a hot-water drill designed to create a cavity in the ice, fill it with lake water, and then pump the sample to the surface.
Unfortunately, the mission was aborted due to technical and operational challenges. While other research teams have successfully drilled into subglacial lakes in Antarctica, Lake Ellsworth remains untouched, continuing to keep the question of whether life exists in its waters unanswered.
3. Blood Falls
The mesmerizing rust-colored Blood Falls flow from the Taylor Glacier into Lake Bonney, located in one of the Dry Valleys. This waterfall rises five stories high, and its eerie red hue comes from the ancient lake from which it originates.
The lake is highly saline and packed with iron. The waterfall emerges from a crack in the glacier, and beneath the thick ice layers, an unseen ecosystem exists. Scientists believe that ancient microbial communities, isolated from the outside world, continue to thrive in this body of water, which has minimal heat, no light, and no oxygen.
The falls were initially discovered in 1911 by a geologist and have since captivated researchers. The prevailing theory suggests the lake was created when the Taylor Glacier advanced over a large seawater pool almost five million years ago.
Researchers are thrilled by the potential to understand how life might behave on other planets, based on the findings from the ecosystem around the falls. Given that Mars shares a similar climate to the Dry Valleys of Antarctica, this location is ideal for unlocking some of the universe's greatest mysteries.
2. Mount Erebus
Mount Erebus, located on Ross Island in Antarctica, holds the title of the southernmost active volcano in the world. Standing at 3,800 meters (12,400 ft), this volcano is highly active and is one of the few remaining volcanoes on Earth with an active lava lake, situated in one of the most isolated places on the planet.
Due to its location and harsh weather conditions, scientists can’t often make in-person visits to Erebus. Most photos of its eruptions are captured via satellite. Nevertheless, in 2013, a small team of researchers successfully climbed the volcano and managed to take a brief look inside its caldera. They were astonished to find movement from organisms living in the intense heat of the volcano's interior!
Mount Erebus began to form around 1.3 million years ago. Its slopes are covered in snow, rocks, and glaciers, and steam constantly rises from its summit. The volcano is also home to numerous ice caves that house thousands of microscopic organisms.
Researchers believe that some of the planet’s most enigmatic and bizarre bacterial life thrives in the soil of these caves. Though these caves are near the surface, they remain hidden beneath a thin layer of ice, making climbs up the mountain a perilous endeavor. Ice crystals often form inside the caves from the volcanic heat.
1. Fossils
In November 2016, the fossilized forewings of a previously unknown beetle species were discovered near the Transantarctic Mountains on the Beardmore Glacier. The beetle, named the Ball’s Antarctic Tundra Beetle, lived between 14 and 20 million years ago, during a time when Antarctica was much warmer than it is today.
Antarctica has been a fascinating site for fossil discoveries, with several found over the years sparking intense scientific debate and curiosity. More than three decades ago, scientists uncovered tiny single-celled fossils called diatoms in the towering peaks of the Transantarctic Mountains.
For years, scientists struggled to explain the presence of these fossils. However, recent research indicates that the combination of strong winds and shifting glaciers likely accounts for their high elevation. These findings also suggest that ice sheets are far more unstable than previously believed.
