Buzz
When you think about ancient civilizations, what comes to mind? The Greeks and Romans likely top the list—one known for their philosophical and intellectual contributions, the other for their military power and empire-building. You might also consider the Egyptians, renowned for their pyramids, agricultural innovations, and rich history of pharaohs. And don’t forget about the ancient dynasties of China or the impactful legacy of India’s past.
However, the reality is that many lesser-known ancient civilizations made extraordinary contributions that often go unrecognized. Beyond Greece, Rome, Egypt, and China, there were numerous other cultures that significantly shaped the world. This list will delve into ten such empires, highlighting their achievements that deserve more acknowledgment in the eyes of modern society.
10. Elam
Elam was an ancient civilization that thrived during the Copper Age, around 5000 BC. Located in what is now southwestern Iran, the Elamites were highly advanced for their time. Much of what we know about them came from the accounts of neighboring or later civilizations, like the Sumerians, as archaeologists had little information of their own about Elam for a long time.
Scholars began discovering ancient tablets, some dating back thousands of years. These tablets featured an intricate and complex writing system, but the issue was no one could decipher them or understand the detailed messages they contained—until just a few years ago.
In recent years, archaeologists, linguists, and historians have managed to decode what is known as 'Linear Elamite.' This language, developed by the Elamites, turned into a remarkably sophisticated writing system during the era of their Copper Age civilization.
A writing system may not seem like a big deal to us today. After all, we take for granted that we can easily write lists and have them read effortlessly. However, in ancient times, a writing system this intricate was nearly unheard of in most parts of the world. Elam developed their own unique language and writing system, seemingly far ahead of others and created in complete isolation without influence from neighboring cultures.
9. Chavin
The Chavin civilization thrived in the central Andes of South America, stretching along the coast of modern-day Peru and beyond, from around the 15th century BC to the 5th century BC. This thousand-year span was a time of immense growth for the Chavin people, especially toward the end of this era. They notably advanced through art and architectural achievements, setting them apart from other civilizations of their time.
Chavin art was deeply religious, filled with iconography that was ahead of its time. The Chavin people utilized their creations—ranging from sculptures and paintings to pottery and stone carvings—not only for artistic expression but also to communicate their beliefs about faith and the afterlife. This made their religious system the first universal belief system in the Andes.
Before the Paracas and Incas, the Chavin established a belief in a higher power, laying the foundation for how society would be organized. All the achievements of the Incas in this area followed the groundwork set by the Chavin. And this was just one of their significant contributions.
Due to their religious influence, the primary urban center, known to historians as Chavin, became a pilgrimage destination for people from across the Andes and even from the deep Peruvian jungles. As a result, Chavin flourished and expanded. Today, it remains remarkably well-preserved as a UNESCO World Heritage site, allowing archaeologists to gain valuable insights into its past.
The Chavin people constructed various buildings using quarried stone, created artificial terraces high in the mountains, and developed an intricate system of tunnels and pathways through their major stone structures. They also designed advanced systems of vents, pipes, and drains, setting new standards in South American architecture at the time—and some of their drainage systems were considered cutting-edge nearly anywhere in the world.
8. Sao
The Sao civilization thrived in what is now known as modern-day Cameroon and the surrounding river areas near Lake Chad in Central Africa, enduring for over two thousand years. Emerging around 2000 BC, or potentially earlier, the Sao developed a range of powerful city-states. These city-states, while influential, were loosely connected, preventing the formation of a unified empire like other civilizations globally. Despite this, each city-state was influential and robust in its own right.
In addition to their political organization, the Sao were pioneers in defensive architecture. They constructed highly fortified walls, turrets, and other significant defensive structures to safeguard their urban centers. Long after their civilization faded, these defenses, including moats and turrets, remained visible. Remarkably advanced for their time, these structures played a key role in the Sao's ability to thrive for centuries, despite the absence of written records about their achievements.
Another remarkable feat of the Sao was their creation of intricately detailed tools, utensils, and artworks using bronze, terracotta, and later, iron they obtained through trade with northern cultures. While the ancient Chinese are often credited with refining terracotta sculpture, the Sao were not far behind, demonstrating exceptional craftsmanship in this art form.
Their masterpieces were so well-crafted that many have survived the ravages of time, remaining largely intact and resistant to decay or destruction. Although the Sao left no written records, archaeologists have managed to reconstruct a detailed history of their civilization, based on the exquisite craftsmanship and artistic artifacts they left behind, providing proof of their enduring legacy in Central Africa.
7. Garamantes
The Garamantes civilization once thrived in the Sahara Desert, specifically in what is now southwestern Libya. Despite the harsh desert conditions, with extremely low rainfall and no natural sources of water like rivers or lakes, they managed to build a prosperous society.
Between 400 BC and AD 400, the Garamantes rose to prominence, relying on an innovative solution to the region's water scarcity: aquifers. They discovered vast underground aquifers filled with water, which they tapped into and perfected their water management methods to support their thriving society.
The Garamantes were pioneers in underground engineering, developing the technique of digging inclined tunnels deep beneath the Sahara's surface. These tunnels, known as 'foggara' or 'qanats', were used to channel groundwater to the surface, aiding irrigation. The civilization created an extensive network of nearly 500 miles (805 kilometers) of these tunnels.
For many years, the Garamantes flourished by using these tunnels to pump water efficiently for irrigation. Their success relied on just enough annual rainfall to keep the aquifers replenished, allowing them to sustain agriculture. However, over time, their success led to overuse of the water supply.
After several years of insufficient rainfall and the excessive depletion of the aquifers, the water levels dropped below the reach of the tunnels. As a result, the foggara system became ineffective, and the Garamantes civilization faced a collapse, forcing many to abandon their desert homes and move to more fertile areas.
And just like that, their story came to an end. But what an impressive thousand years they had! Their legacy is unforgettable, especially for being early innovators in groundwater irrigation in such a dry environment. Truly remarkable!
6. Tlaxcala
The Tlaxcala civilization ruled a small but strategically significant area of what is now Mexico, from the 14th century until the early 16th century, just as the Spanish arrived and began attempting to take control of the region. At that time, the Aztecs were the dominant force in the area, as they had been for centuries.
The Aztecs were so militarily powerful that they crushed nearly every civilization they came across. Other groups, like the Cacaxtla and Teo-Chichimeca peoples, rose before the Tlaxcala, but they quickly fell to Aztec military might and political control.
However, the Tlaxcala were different. They were essentially the only indigenous group in Mexico to successfully resist the Aztecs as they expanded across the region. With their formidable warriors, the Tlaxcala made it so challenging for the Aztecs that the latter eventually gave up and moved on to conquer easier territories. This left the Tlaxcala in control of their small, yet powerful region deep in the high jungles of central Mexico, near what is now Mexico City.
Then came the Spaniards. While the Spanish invasion caused widespread devastation throughout the region, the Tlaxcala were clever enough to adapt. Instead of fighting and losing to the Spaniards, they formed an alliance with them against the Aztecs. The Spanish, grateful for their help and impressed by their strength, granted the Tlaxcala significant land and sovereignty even as they began the process of colonizing Mexico.
The Tlaxcala civilization endured for several centuries following the arrival of the Spanish. While it wasn’t as powerful or vibrant as it once had been, the privileges granted by Hernán Cortés and his fellow conquistadors remained in place indefinitely. Eventually, when Mexico emerged as a unified nation, Tlaxcala became a distinct administrative region.
Today, Tlaxcala stands as an independent state within Mexico. It may be small in size and densely populated, but it carries with it the pride of a people who successfully resisted the Aztecs and cleverly navigated the arrival of the Spanish when so many other civilizations fell.
5. Zapotec
Let’s stay in Mexico for one more civilization, shall we? This time, we turn our attention to the Zapotec people. Their influence in what is now the Mexican state of Oaxaca began around 700 BC, continuing in waves until the early 16th century, when the Spanish arrived in the region.
The Zapotecs reached their peak of power between 250 and 700 AD. During this period, they controlled nearly all of southern Mexico from their two capital cities, Monte Albán and Mitla. The Zapotecs also made several notable advancements that set them apart from other civilizations of the time.
One of their remarkable achievements was the development of one of the first standardized writing systems in the Americas, independent of any external influences. When it became widely used, it was one of the very few known writing systems in the Western Hemisphere. Historians can still study the intricate glyphs left behind on beautiful artwork and complex architectural structures.
The Zapotecs also excelled in architecture, with innovations far ahead of other Mesoamerican cultures. In their second capital city, Mitla, they constructed impressive stone buildings adorned with mosaic designs. Such detailed and intricate architectural work was unparalleled in Mesoamerica at the time.
Their first capital, Monte Albán, also demonstrated their advanced knowledge, with a layout that reflected remarkable precision. The alignments of the stone structures and temples were designed to correspond with celestial events and the movement of the stars. It’s clear that the Zapotecs dedicated considerable effort to mastering astrology.
Unfortunately for the Zapotecs, despite their intelligence and ingenuity, they were not as formidable in warfare as the Tlaxcala. Around 1000 AD, both the Mixtec and Aztec peoples began encroaching on Zapotec lands. By the time the Spanish arrived in the 16th century, the Zapotecs had already been integrated into Aztec culture, which had become dominant throughout Mexico. Nevertheless, descendants of the Zapotecs still live in Oaxaca today, carrying on the legacy of this remarkable civilization.
4. Sogdiana
The Sogdian people inhabited a region in Central Asia known as Sogdiana, which was blessed with fertile land ideal for agriculture, allowing their civilization to thrive. More significantly, Sogdiana’s strategic location played a crucial role in its prosperity.
Sogdiana lay directly on the Silk Road, linking the powerful empires of China, India, and Persia. Taking advantage of their location, the Sogdians became essential intermediaries and traders, securing a place as some of the most influential merchants in history.
Whenever merchant caravans traveled along the Silk Road, whether moving from China, through India, or toward Persia, the Sogdians were there to provide food, rest, supplies for animals, and trade goods. As a result, many Sogdians became fluent in a variety of languages, including ancient Persian, Chinese, and Turkish, alongside their native tongue.
Moreover, because travelers from all over Central, South, and East Asia passed through Sogdiana, the Sogdians shared their language skills with these visitors. Today, the influence of Sogdian can be traced in the shared roots of words found in languages from cultures that were separated by vast distances. But their influence wasn’t limited to just language.
The Sogdians were exceptional traders, highly advanced in technology and culture. Their influence was profound along the Silk Road, introducing new commodities and innovations such as paper, gunpowder, and much more. They played a crucial role in spreading Buddhism from India to China over many centuries, contributing significantly to cultural exchanges between distant civilizations.
By the 8th century AD, the Sogdians faced a rapid decline in their once-powerful empire in Central Asia. Forces from the west, including the Turks, the Mongols from the east, and the Arab conquest, overwhelmed them, and the Sogdians struggled to maintain their dominance amidst these challenges.
As their empire faltered, the flow of trade along the Silk Road diminished. Yet, long before this decline in the late 700s, the Sogdians had been a pivotal force in Asia. They remain one of the most influential groups you've likely never encountered—until now!
3. Jōmon
The Jōmon civilization of Japan began around 13,000 BC, lasting until just before the 1st century AD. It marks the beginning of Japanese history, laying the foundation for the nation's cultural development and bringing Japan to prominence over many millennia.
The Jōmon people were distinguished by numerous advancements, one of which was their sedentary lifestyle. While many civilizations during their time were still nomadic or semi-nomadic, the Jōmon possessed the agricultural skills to settle in one place, putting down roots both literally and metaphorically. Thousands of years ago, they constructed some of the first traditional, permanent homes in all of Asia. Their sedentary way of life also paved the way for other technological innovations.
The Jōmon were exceptional potters. Their pottery was not only distinct and artistically significant but also a major technological achievement. They crafted clay pots with specific shapes and independently discovered how applying heat could harden and strengthen the clay, enhancing its functionality and durability.
The distinctive shapes of their pots led archaeologists to believe that the Jōmon had the knowledge to use them for boiling food. These well-crafted and sturdy containers also allowed them to store food for long periods, supporting their sedentary lifestyle by ensuring a reliable food supply without the need to hunt or constantly search for resources in new regions.
2. Moche
Known also as the Mochica, the Moche civilization flourished along the northern coast and in the inland valleys of ancient Peru. From the first century AD until the ninth century AD, the Moche lived in parallel with the Nazca civilization, which was influential along the southern coast of Peru during the same period.
Although the Moche were highly skilled as warriors and astute politicians, they chose to remain isolated and developed a remarkable civilization without resorting to major conflicts or invasions from other groups. Military strength was not their main source of power; instead, they were exceptional artisans, much like the Lydians of Anatolia, renowned for their craftsmanship in metal jewelry, household tools, and other creations.
No other South American civilization matched the Moche's metallurgical expertise at their peak. As a result, the Moche left behind a remarkable collection of religious and artistic artifacts that continue to reveal much about their culture to historians and architects. Their art was particularly intricate and advanced, surpassing that of most other South American cultures at the time, signaling a level of sophistication unseen in many other New World societies.
The Moche civilization's capital city, also named Moche, was situated in a valley at the base of what is now known as Cerro Blanco Mountain. Historical records suggest that the city once spanned approximately 7,410 acres (300 hectares). It was highly advanced for its era, featuring thoughtful urban planning that made the city both functional and comfortable for its inhabitants.
The city was designed with multiple levels to accommodate different structures, sloped terraces for gradual inclines, ramps instead of stairs to facilitate the movement of large crowds, and even angled roofing designed to manage rainfall effectively. These design features were exceptionally advanced for the time and place, further suggesting that the Moche civilization had a remarkable degree of sophistication and development.
1. Lydia
The Lydian civilization thrived in Anatolia, modern-day Turkey, from around 1200 BC to the 7th century BC. For many years, they stood as the dominant and most remarkable civilization in the region, making their mark as one of the world's most significant cultures during their time.
One key advantage for the Lydians was their fortunate geographical position. Their land was fertile and easy to cultivate, and they were situated along the Mediterranean coast, where trade and commerce were easily accessible. This strategic location helped them develop into one of the region's most important cultural and commercial hubs.
As they flourished, the Lydians became renowned for their exceptional craftsmanship, particularly in metallurgy, producing exquisite jewelry. However, as their wealth and trade expanded, they realized the need for a better way to manage their growing economy. The solution came from their own metallurgists: the invention of coinage.
The Lydians were the first civilization to create a system of gold and silver coins for use as currency. They pressed and stamped these coins and began using them in trade. This development was complemented by the establishment of commercial businesses and retail shops, where goods were exchanged for coins. So, the next time you make a purchase at a store, remember to thank the Lydians.
The Ionian Greeks were so impressed by the Lydian coinage system that they adopted it for their own culture. They also embraced the concept of retail shops, spreading the idea across their empire. When the Greek commercial revolution took place around the 6th century BC, the monetary system they had inherited from the Lydians played a crucial role in that transformation in Ancient Greece.
Unfortunately, the Lydians were not around to witness the long-lasting impact of their civilization or to understand how their influence would be felt centuries and even millennia later. They became so wealthy and skilled at developing their society that others began to take notice. Starting in the 7th century BC, the mighty Achaemenid Persian Empire turned its attention to conquering the Lydian territories. Then, in the 6th century BC, Cyrus the Great led his forces into the region, waging war and taking the spoils. And so, the Lydians met their end. But their legacy lives on in the form of coins and corner stores!
+ BONUS: Polynesia
While you may not be familiar with many (or possibly any) of the civilizations mentioned here, the Polynesians are a different story. This term refers to vast groups of people spread across both a long span of time and a geographically distant area—the small islands scattered throughout the South Pacific Ocean between Australia and Hawaii. Although the Polynesians are more widely known than, for example, the Moche, Lydians, or Zapotecs, they often don't receive the recognition they deserve, especially for one particular achievement: their unparalleled sailing abilities.
Long before the advent of maps, GPS, and smartphones with satellite positioning, Polynesian sailors embarked on journeys between distant islands, relying solely on faith and memorization to navigate. Their sailing methods, now called 'wayfinding,' involved the memorization of sun and moon positions, as well as the arrangement of stars in the night sky, to guide them to their next destination—often hundreds or even thousands of miles away.
This knowledge was passed down through generations. When the skies were cloudy, rainy, or dark and the stars were not visible, Polynesian navigators would rely on their instinctive understanding of wind patterns, the subtle shifts in wave swells, and even the presence of bioluminescent sea life to determine where the next island might be, which direction to sail in, and how far they would need to travel.
Against all odds, they succeeded. Over millennia, the ancestors of today's Melanesians, Polynesians, and Micronesians expanded from Southeast Asia, journeying across what is now Papua New Guinea and venturing into vast oceanic expanses. They settled on tiny islands in present-day Kiribati, Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu, and Hawaii, using outriggers and double-hulled canoes that were specially designed and remarkably resilient. They even made it all the way to the Americas!
Archaeologists now acknowledge that the Polynesians were exploring the South American coast far east of their homeland long before Christopher Columbus made his own journey several thousand miles to the north. Amazing, right? And they accomplished this with no formal navigation tools, relying solely on memory and tips passed down from elder sailors. Truly an act of immense bravery!
