10 Ancient Divination Techniques for Forecasting the Future

Long before the Magic 8 Ball came into existence, humans have sought ways to foresee future events. Ancient civilizations frequently engaged in divination, employing bones and entrails, a tradition that may date back even earlier. Over time, everyday objects—ranging from books and chickens to cheese—were repurposed for predicting outcomes, giving rise to numerous terms ending with -mancy (derived from the Ancient Greek word for "seer" or "prophet"). This list explores some of the most fascinating historical divination methods, from widely recognized practices to the more obscure, some of which might still be in use today, depending on whom you consult.

1. Hieromancy (Foretelling the Future Through Entrails)

Originating in Mesopotamia and later adopted by classical Greece and other cultures, hieromancy involved sacrificing animals and examining their internal organs, particularly the liver, for signs. This method was among the most significant forms of divination in the ancient world, second only to oracles. Cicero, in his work De Divinatione ("On Divination"), noted that "nearly everybody employs entrails in divining." Known by various names such as extispicy and haruspicy, this practice was conducted by experts, sometimes referred to as extispices or haruspices. While specific interpretation methods are often unclear, a healthy liver typically signaled good fortune, whereas a missing lobe was a harbinger of disaster. Anomalies in the heart or excessive blood were also considered dire omens. The Etruscans were particularly renowned for their skill in hieromancy, evidenced by the discovery of a life-sized bronze model of a sheep's liver, inscribed with the names of deities in different sections—akin to the phrenology heads of old.

2. Ornithomancy (Foretelling the Future Through Birds)

Observing and interpreting bird behavior stands as one of the most ancient divination practices, deeply embedded in Greek religious traditions. In Aristophanes's play The Birds, a bird chorus leader boasts about their role in divination: "Before any significant action—be it a business deal, marriage, or even buying food—you seek guidance from birds by interpreting their signs." (The bird humorously adds: "For you, everything is an omen—a sneeze, a chance encounter, an unfamiliar sound, even a donkey or a slave.") In ancient Rome, ornithomancy was conducted by augurs, priests who interpreted divine will by studying bird movements, sounds, and other natural phenomena like thunder. Sacred chickens were also used; if food dropped from their beaks during feeding, it was considered an exceptionally favorable omen.

3. Pyro-osteomancy (Divination Through Bones)

In ancient China, bones served as tools for predicting the future. From the Neolithic era through the Shang dynasty and beyond, experts would carve questions onto animal shoulder blades (often from cattle) and tortoise shells, then create pits and apply heat. The resulting cracks were interpreted as answers—either as positive or negative signs or with more detailed meanings. Some researchers believe these crack patterns influenced early Chinese writing, and these oracle bones, as they are now called, represent the oldest examples of Chinese script. Forgotten for centuries, they were rediscovered in the early 20th century, having been previously mistaken for "dragon bones" and ground into medicinal powders. Similar pyro-osteomancy practices were found across East and Northeast Asia, as well as in North America, and some indigenous communities may still use these methods today.

4. Bibliomancy (Foretelling the Future Through Books)

The method of posing a question, randomly opening a book, and interpreting the first passage encountered as an answer was widely practiced among Greeks, Romans, Muslims, medieval Europeans, and others. Popular texts included the Bible, the Book of Psalms, the Koran, and the works of the Roman poet Virgil. Divination using Virgil's writings even had its own name, the sortes Virgilianae. (In modern times, you can even try it online.) Interestingly, reading wasn't always necessary—in Russia, books were hung from ceilings, and their movements when specific names were spoken were believed to reveal future spouses or predict which girls would marry within the year.

5. Alectryomancy (Divination Through Chickens)

Chickens were more than just a food source in ancient times—they were also used to predict the future. Various techniques involved offering chickens grain in specific locations or directions, with their choices corresponding to answers about battles, future spouses, or other inquiries. According to The New Encyclopedia of the Occult, a notable instance occurred during Emperor Valens's reign (364-378 CE), when Roman courtiers sought to identify his successor. A circle was divided into segments, each marked with a letter and a grain of wheat. After rituals, the chicken pecked grains spelling t,h,e,o, and d, interpreted as "Theodotus," an ambitious official. Unfortunately, Valens discovered the plot and executed everyone involved—including Theodotus. (The fate of the chicken remains unclear.)

6. Tyromancy (Foretelling the Future Through Cheese)

Cheese was used as a divination tool in ancient times and during the Middle Ages, though the specifics remain largely undocumented. Some accounts suggest that the shapes of holes in cheese were interpreted symbolically—a heart shape might signify love, while certain holes could resemble initials. According to occultopedia.com, rural young women would inscribe suitors' names on cheese pieces, believing the first to mold indicated their future husband. However, the Greek diviner Artemidorus dismissed cheese divination as unreliable, grouping cheese diviners with other "false diviners" like dice readers, sieve-diviners, and necromancers. He considered dream and liver interpretations far more trustworthy.

7. Ceromancy (Divination Through Melted Wax)

The intricate patterns formed by dripping melted wax into water served as a divination method in ancient and medieval Europe. A popular technique involved melting wax in a brass vessel and pouring it into cold water, with the diviner interpreting the resulting shapes. A similar practice, molybdomancy, used molten metal, typically lead. A 19th-century Irish text advised women to place a lead lump under their pillow on Midsummer's Eve to discover their future spouse's profession. The next day, they would melt the lead, pour it into water, and examine the shapes—"a ship indicated a sailor, a book a clergyman, and so on."

8. Cledonomancy (Divination Through Overheard Words)

For the ancient Greeks and Romans, seemingly random words often held deeper meaning. Cledonomancy, the practice of divining through overheard speech, could occur spontaneously or as part of a ritual. In De Divinatione, Cicero recounts a tale about Roman general Lucius Paulus, who was preparing to battle King Perseus of Macedonia. Upon returning home, he noticed his daughter Tertia appeared sad. When he asked, "Why are you upset, my dear?" she replied, "Oh! Father, Persa is dead." Persa was her puppy's name, but Paulus took it as an omen foretelling his victory over Perseus, which indeed came to pass.

Certain Greek oracles, like the oracle of Hermes at Pharai, were structured around cledonomancy. After offering incense and prayers, seekers would whisper their questions into the statue's ear, cover their ears, and walk away. The first words they heard upon uncovering their ears were believed to hold the answer to their query.

9. Ring Oracles and "Under-the-Bowl Songs"

In Russia, divination was a cherished tradition during the strashyne ("fearful") days following the New Year, when evil spirits were believed to roam freely. As noted in W. F. Ryan's The Bathhouse at Midnight: An Historical Survey of Magic and Divination in Russia, divination rituals conducted between midnight and 3 a.m. during this period were thought to be particularly potent. One favored method involved "under-the-bowl songs," where rings and personal items were placed in a bowl while divinatory songs were sung, each verse predicting a specific fate, such as poverty or spinsterhood.

A variation from the Kaluga province involved girls drawing water from a well while whispering the name of a desired suitor. Back home, they poured the water into a bowl, added oats, rings, a cross, and charcoal, then covered the bowl. A widow would stir the water with her pinkie finger as the group sang. At the end of each verse, the widow would draw a ring, revealing the fortune tied to its owner. Ryan provides an example of a verse predicting death:

Death is walking down the street, He carries a pancake on a plate, To the one whose ring is taken out, It will happen, It will happen soon, It can't be escaped.

10. Herring Fat and Membranes

In mid-19th-century Belfast, as recorded in Oxford's Dictionary of Superstitions, women used herring membranes to predict their future husbands' traits. An excerpt describes "a small, silvery, sticky membrane about an inch and a half long, found along the fish's backbone." Female servants would toss these membranes against a wall and interpret the shapes to determine if their future spouse would be tall, handsome, short, or unattractive. A similar practice in Scotland, documented in the 1824 Gallovidian Encyclopedia, states: "Herring Soam, the fat of herrings. Young girls throw this against a wall, and if it sticks upright, their husband will be upright; if crooked, he will be crooked."