Buzz
With discoveries happening at an unprecedented pace, it might seem like there will soon be no puzzles left to crack, potentially leaving scientists without work. But in reality, the curious and inventive minds of ancient civilizations have left us with endless mysteries—some trivial, yet always fascinating and enlightening.
10. Egyptian Wildlife
Ancient Egyptians were not only skilled naturalists but also meticulous record-keepers, enabling today’s researchers to reconstruct the region’s thriving ecosystem as it existed 6,000 years ago.
Animal symbolism was a prevalent theme, and the diversity of local wildlife was documented through various mediums such as carvings, rock art, ceremonial artifacts, and tomb murals. Together, these records offer a comprehensive account of Egypt's fauna and a sobering realization that out of the 37 large mammal species that once existed, only eight survive today.
The landscape was vastly different in ancient times: Egypt resembled a North African Serengeti, teeming with savanna inhabitants like lions, wildebeests, zebras, and wild dogs. Unfortunately, many of these species vanished due to droughts, human interference, and habitat destruction.
Since ecosystems rely on interconnected relationships, the decline accelerates as each species disappears. For instance, the extinction of herbivores reduces food sources for predators. Experts caution that the remaining species face greater threats now than at almost any point since the last ice age.
9. The Collapse of Cahokia
Around 1,000 years ago, Cahokia stood as North America’s most significant urban center, featuring 120 mounds across a 15-square-kilometer (6 mi) stretch of fertile land near the Mississippi River. At its peak, the city was home to 20,000 residents, surpassing the population of London and other major European cities of the time. Some estimates even suggest it housed as many as 40,000 people within its boundaries.
The city thrived until approximately 600–700 years ago, when its population—already dwindling and grappling with the political challenges common to all societies—was seemingly wiped out by an unexplained natural catastrophe. Recent findings indicate that a sequence of massive floods was the likely cause.
The revelation came somewhat unexpectedly. Scientists were extracting sediment from Horseshoe Lake near the heart of the city, hoping to uncover fossilized remains, artifacts, and pollen to better understand human activity in Cahokia.
Instead, they uncovered proof of repeated flooding events that occurred before Cahokia’s establishment. These floods paused for a time but resumed with devastating force around the period of the city’s decline. Thus, the very river that sustained Cahokia’s growth ultimately sealed its fate.
8. Enigmatic Cave Painting
Archaeologists exploring a Neolithic site near Konya, Turkey, were puzzled by a cave mural that seemingly portrays an array of Etch A Sketches preserved under a leopard-skin covering.
First uncovered during 1960s excavations, the mural has long divided experts. Some argue it represents the world’s earliest map, illustrating the ancient settlement of Catalhoyuk at its peak around 9,000 years ago. Others dismiss it as abstract prehistoric art—mysterious creations by long-lost artists, impossible to fully decipher.
Experts now think they’ve solved the mystery: The mural depicts an ancient volcanic eruption. The grid-like patterns symbolize the settlement viewed from above, the peculiar spotted shape represents nearby Mount Hassan, and the previously puzzling lines depict streams of lava and plumes of smoke.
Supporting this theory, the mound illustrated in the mural features two peaks of comparable size to those of Mount Hassan, known as Small and Big Mount Hassan. Additionally, fragments of pumice (volcanic rock) discovered in the area indicate an eruption occurred roughly 8,900 years ago, coinciding with Catalhoyuk’s peak.
7. The Skull with Honeycomb Patterns
In 1480, Ottoman forces invaded the Italian city of Otranto, pillaging the town and killing most of the adult male population. The remaining 800 men were given the choice to abandon their Christian beliefs. Upon their refusal, they were led out of the city and executed by beheading. Most women and teenagers were also killed, while the survivors were sold into slavery.
In 1771, those who refused to renounce their faith were beatified as the “martyrs of Otranto” and are now venerated as the city’s patron saints. Centuries later, the skulls of these martyrs, canonized in 2013, are exhibited in Otranto’s Cathedral. Oddly, one of the skulls bears 16 meticulously drilled holes.
Fortunately, it seems the holes were made long after death to extract skull residue. Bone powder was once a popular remedy for various ailments, and it’s likely this sacred bone powder was highly prized. The tools used for this process were specifically designed to grind bone into fine powder.
6. The Puzzlingly Impractical Coins
Anthropologists stumbled upon an ancient anomaly when they unearthed a collection of peculiarly shaped coins at the Ziyaret Tepe excavation site in Turkey. Ranging from pyramid-like forms to conical wizard-hat shapes, these clay tokens were used as trade markers in the ancient city of Tushan.
Such tokens were common before the rise of written language. However, they largely disappeared after 3000 BC. Surprisingly, the recently found cache in Turkey dates back to around 1000 BC, a time when cuneiform writing was well-established. Despite their presumed obsolescence, it appears these tokens were still exchanged instead of relying solely on written records.
The tokens were ingeniously integrated into an empire-wide administrative system to track the vast resources of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. Since many farmers, herders, and laborers were illiterate, these tokens provided a practical way to monitor livestock and goods. The data was then transcribed onto cuneiform tablets by literate officials, who documented the flow of products into the city.
5. Seashells and El Nino
The El Nino cycle is the most significant driver of short-term, annual climate fluctuations. Until recently, scientists believed they had accurately reconstructed its historical patterns. However, a modest collection of seashells reveals that past cycles were similar to modern ones, hinting at a greater level of unpredictability for future events.
El Nino occurs when the usual winds pushing warm waters eastward across the equatorial Pacific weaken or shift, leading to rises in average sea temperatures. These irregular changes eventually reverse, sometimes causing sea temperatures to drop below average in a phase called La Nina—completing one cycle of the El Nino Southern Oscillation.
While scientists can somewhat forecast these erratic winds, previous climate models assumed El Nino was far weaker in the past, particularly 10,000 years ago. By studying massive shell mounds left by ancient indigenous communities in present-day Peru, researchers extracted a detailed climate record by analyzing oxygen ratios within the shells.
Unfortunately, past El Nino patterns did not align with the scientific models designed to explain its variations. Initially, it was thought that Earth’s wobble in space, causing changes in solar radiation, influenced the intensity of these events. However, the shells contradict this, indicating that other factors, such as massive releases of water and ice from melting glaciers, have been significantly underestimated.
4. Stonehenge Stones Hint at an Earlier Structure
As Stonehenge, a site of extensive study yet enduring mystery, continues to reveal its secrets, researchers have determined that the bluestone slabs originated from an ancient quarry in the Preseli Hills of Pembrokeshire, Wales.
Stonehenge is primarily composed of two types of stone. The towering, upright structures are made of sarsen, a local sandstone. The smaller stones, known as bluestones, are volcanic in origin and come in two varieties: rhyolite and “spotted” dolerite. Dating evidence indicates that these bluestones were placed approximately 400 years before the larger sarsen stones.
Due to unique geological conditions and the damp Welsh climate, the bluestones naturally formed into pillars, making extraction relatively simple. Workers only needed to insert wooden stakes between the columns and wait for rain. When soaked, the stakes expanded, breaking the pre-shaped stones free from the rocky cliff face.
After determining that the quarrying occurred around 3300 BC, researchers now propose that a smaller, earlier version of Stonehenge, dubbed Stonehenge Lite, was initially constructed near the Welsh quarry. The team is optimistic about pinpointing its original location and aims to confirm this theory by 2016.
3. Roman Concrete
The secret behind Roman concrete may have been uncovered thanks to Campi Flegrei, a semi-dormant volcano beneath the ancient city of Pouzzoli, founded by Greek explorers in 600 BC.
In 1982, the volcano reawakened, causing the ground to rise 2 meters (6 ft) in just two years, rendering the shallow pier nearly unusable. A series of minor earthquakes then forced the evacuation of Pouzzoli’s 40,000 residents. Surprisingly, the volcano did not erupt, sparing the historic city.
Investigating this phenomenon, Tiziana Vanorio, a former resident and now a geophysicist at Stanford, may have accidentally unraveled an ancient enigma.
Beneath the city, a mix of hot, mineral-rich waters produced calcium hydroxide (hydrated lime). This lime, rising to the surface, combined with volcanic ash to form natural concrete, sealing the caldera and preventing an eruption by allowing gases and fluids to escape through cracks in the crust.
The natural concrete formed in the area is strikingly similar to that used in Roman structures, suggesting that an astute observer noticed how combining local ash and soil produced this remarkably durable material. Since mining volcanic deposits was hazardous, the Romans added their own lime to create their concrete.
2. The Legendary Fortress Acra
Archaeologists have excitedly revealed the discovery of what they believe to be the legendary Acra fortress, established over 2,000 years ago by the Greek ruler Antiochus Epiphanes. The stronghold is prominently mentioned in the Book of Maccabees and by the historian Josephus Flavius.
Both historical sources located the fortress within the City of David, leading to unsuccessful searches and considerable frustration over the past century. However, Acra was actually situated outside the city walls on a hill, offering a strategic vantage point over the valley below and controlling access to the Temple Mount.
Over time, the site had been buried under layers of history and was only uncovered after a decade of excavating an old parking lot and meticulously sifting through accumulated soil from later generations.
Beneath the layers of debris, archaeologists uncovered the remains of a massive tower, a formidable wall, and a steep defensive embankment. This discovery is invaluable as it provides a detailed glimpse of the settlement as it existed in 167 BC, just before the famous Maccabean revolt.
Alongside the fortress, researchers unearthed coins, wine jugs, and even weapons—such as rocks, ballista stones, and arrowheads—used by the Hasmoneans in their attempts to capture the stronghold. It wasn’t until 141 BC that Simon Maccabee, after a prolonged siege, celebrated Acra’s eventual surrender.
1. Jotunvillur Code
Crypto-anthropologists have finally deciphered a Viking code from the late Middle Ages that had remained unsolved for centuries. The breakthrough came thanks to a small engraving, akin to a miniature Rosetta Stone, where two individuals inscribed their names in both coded and standard runic script.
Eager to uncover a well-guarded secret or some ancient scandal, researchers were instead met with an 800-year-old joke: The message simply read, “kiss me.”
It seems coded writing in the past served a different purpose—more for education and entertainment than for secrecy. Some pranksters even turned it into a game, crafting runes that taunted others with phrases like “interpret me if you can.”
The jotunvillur code, in particular, was notoriously difficult to decode. It replaces each rune with the final sound of its name. For instance, the rune for “m” (maor) becomes “r.”
Ultimately, the jotunvillur code doesn’t reveal anything of great historical significance, but it does offer a delightful glimpse into the playful side of Viking culture.
