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Even with the incredible progress we've made in medicine and science, outbreaks of disease remain a regular occurrence. Many people fear that plagues could be one of the ways our world could meet its end, and it’s shocking to think how limited our understanding of disease has been throughout history.
10. Xenophobia And Hostility Help Prevent Disease Spread
Although we’ve learned a great deal about how germs operate and spread, new theories continue to emerge. Researchers from the University of New Mexico and the University of British Columbia propose that we’ve unintentionally developed a rather clever way to keep disease from spreading across cultures over time: by being rude.
In short, the theory suggests that we’ve developed cultures where strangers and outsiders are seen as individuals to be avoided and excluded, rather than welcomed, to ensure they keep their germs to themselves. The study analyzed numerous cultures and found that those with fewer disease outbreaks tended to be split into smaller, more autonomous groups, each with its own language and cultural identity, rather than a single unified culture.
The researchers also proposed that areas with lower disease rates tend to be more distant and less affectionate towards strangers. In these regions, greetings like hugging and kissing are less common. These cultures also tend to create certain food-related taboos that serve to keep people away from harmful pathogens. The theory suggests that awareness of disease has significantly influenced the evolution of cultures around the world.
9. The Five-Second Rule
We’ve all heard the claim that food dropped on the floor is safe to eat if picked up within five seconds. Despite numerous studies on this phenomenon, science is still undecided on whether it’s actually true.
Researchers from Clemson University have found that certain bacteria, such as salmonella, can survive on a typical kitchen floor for up to a month and transfer to dropped food instantly. However, a separate study conducted by Aston University in the UK examined the transfer of E. coli and Staphylococcus bacteria between food and various types of flooring. They discovered that the longer food remained in contact with the floor, the greater the amount of bacteria transferred.
It’s important to recognize that the two studies used different bacterial strains, indicating that different bacteria behave differently. It’s probably best to simply avoid eating anything that falls on the floor.
8. Sent By The Gods
In ancient Greece, the concept of bacteria and how illness spread was largely unknown. They believed that disease was sent by the gods, even attributing plagues that ravaged cities to the anger of Zeus over the actions of one person. Apollo and Artemis were often thought to be the deities who inflicted disease upon those who angered them. Another myth attributes the release of disease upon the world to Pandora, who unleashed it when opening her box. Some accounts, like The Odyssey, suggest that both causes were true.
In Greek mythology, the spirits released by Pandora were known as the Nosoi. In Roman mythology, these embodiments of disease and decay were named Lues, Tabes, Macies, Morbus, and Pestis. Like other gods, the Nosoi were given distinct traits: Morbus moved with a sense of world-weary fatigue, Pestis was driven by greed, and all of them were controlled by Erinys, the personification of vengeance. Hesiod wrote that when Zeus created the Nosoi, he stripped them of the ability to speak so that no one would hear them coming, ensuring no escape from their wrath.
7. The Contributions of Robert Koch
Much of our current understanding of bacteria is built on the work of Robert Koch. A German scientist who taught himself to read by using newspapers at just five years old, Koch later studied at the University of Gottingen under Jacob Henle, who was investigating the idea that diseases were caused by some form of unknown organism or parasite.
After his service in the Franco-Prussian War, Koch set up his own laboratory at home. Armed with a microscope and homemade equipment, he began working on identifying the bacteria thought to be linked to anthrax. Koch was eventually recognized for proving that bacteria were the cause of disease and could be transmitted from one person to another through the bloodstream.
He also figured out that bacteria survive in unfavorable conditions by the creation of spores that can hibernate and spawn new bacteria once conditions are better. He experimented with different ways of raising bacteria so they could be more easily studied and outlined the conditions that must be present for bacteria to spread. Perhaps most importantly, he also wrote guidelines for the control of contagious disease, including the importance of keeping the water supply clean.
6. Miasma
Throughout the Middle Ages, one of the major theories about how disease was spread concerned the presence of miasma, a toxic gas that built up in the soil when plant and animal matter decayed. From China to Europe, this was the scientifically accepted explanation for disease for centuries.
In the early 1800s, a French chemist named Boussingault performed a series of experiments to confirm the existence of miasma and its responsibility for making people sick. His search for the hypothesized hydrogen compound in miasma that was thought to be the cause was a failure, but discussions with a fellow scientist, Justus von Liebig, led them a step closer to the real culprit. Liebig theorized that something in the miasma, not the miasma itself, entered the bloodstream to make people contagiously ill.
The notion that miasma caused illness became increasingly credible as cities grew, particularly during events like the summer of 1858, when the Great Stink overwhelmed Victorian London due to inadequate waste disposal. This event, followed by a cholera outbreak, seemed to validate the miasma theory. Even Florence Nightingale was a believer, stating that one of the primary sources of infection was household drains, which allowed contaminated air to seep back into homes and infect entire families.
5. Spontaneous Generation
Today, the concept of spontaneous generation in 1859 seems unfathomable, yet numerous methods for creating life from nothing, such as generating mice from wheat husks and sweaty underwear in a jar, were commonly discussed well into the 19th century.
In 1745, clergyman John Needham boiled chicken broth to sterilize it and sealed the container, only to open it later and discover more microbes. This was considered proof of spontaneous generation.
At first, the introduction of germ theory seemed to back the concept of spontaneous generation. It was believed that microbes were merely a result of disease, rather than its cause, which aligned with the idea that they spontaneously appeared in the body. It wasn't until 1859 when Louis Pasteur's research disproved this theory.
4. Lady Mary Wortley Montagu and the Discovery of Vaccinations
Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, a British aristocrat, was married to the Turkish ambassador. When her husband was posted to Turkey in 1716, he brought his wife along. At the time, neither knew that this seemingly simple decision would play a significant role in advancing Western understanding of disease prevention.
Smallpox, a deadly and often disfiguring disease, had plagued England throughout the Elizabethan period. We now understand it was known as far back as ancient Egypt. While in Turkey, Lady Montagu witnessed several elderly women treating children by puncturing veins and exposing the blood to a small amount of smallpox toxin. The children would experience a mild version of the illness and recover, gaining lifelong immunity against the disease.
Lady Montagu was amazed to see how the procedure was taken by the people, 'as they take the waters in other countries,' and she returned to England with the newfound knowledge. She even had the procedure done on her own children. However, there was still a lot of skepticism, so Lady Montagu and the wife of the Prince of Wales decided to demonstrate its safety by convincing a group of prisoners at Newgate Prison to undergo inoculation. The death row prisoners were granted pardons in exchange for their participation in 'The Royal Experiment.'
3. The Contagion Theory
The contagion theory, first proposed by the Greek physician and philosopher Galen, was rooted in his earlier ideas about the four humors. What we now recognize as germs were referred to by Galen as the 'seeds of disease.' He believed these seeds were present in a person's body, and they explained why some individuals developed illnesses while others remained unaffected.
This theory was largely disregarded in favor of the four humors, most likely because it was impossible to prove or disprove who had these disease seeds within them, whereas the humors could be observed in everyone. However, it gained renewed attention when 16th-century physician Girolamo Fracastoro wrote about how diseases spread. Not only did he propose that these seeds determined who would get sick, but he also suggested they could be transmitted from person to person.
Fracastoro's ideas played a significant role in Italy's approach to controlling illness through quarantine. However, despite his contributions, he also made a number of errors. He proposed that disease-causing seeds spontaneously formed within the body and that different seeds took root in specific humors. To remove these seeds, the corresponding humor would have to be drained. His theory eventually lost favor because it was unprovable, and by 1650, he faded into obscurity.
2. Super Spreaders Aren’t An Anomaly
Super spreaders are individuals who, for various reasons, spread a disease to an unusually high number of people. One of the most famous examples is Typhoid Mary, who transmitted typhoid to many people without ever contracting the illness herself.
When scientists investigate the spread of disease, they examine numerous factors, such as how many people in a population are susceptible to illness and how many individuals a single person can expose. For years, it was believed that super spreaders were rare exceptions. However, this assumption has since been proven wrong. In reality, there's a strong possibility that a super spreader is present in your household right now.
Children play a significant role in spreading infections, often more than adults. Research has shown that vaccinating just 20 percent of children is more efficient in curbing the transmission of diseases like the flu compared to vaccinating 90 percent of individuals aged 65 or older. Because children's immune systems are still developing, they carry infections for longer periods and tend to interact with more people due to activities like school and extracurricular events.
1. The Humoral Theory and Ayurveda
A prevalent historical notion about the body’s susceptibility to illness is the idea that the body’s internal equilibrium is disrupted. Ancient Greek thought suggested that the body contained four humors—black bile, yellow bile, blood, and phlegm—each influencing a different bodily function. Maintaining a balance among these humors was considered essential for good health, and many treatments aimed at restoring this balance.
This theory, which was first formalized by Hippocrates and Galen around 200 B.C., has its roots in much earlier traditions. In the ancient Indian practice of Ayurveda, believed to have been developed between 700 and 400 B.C., the imbalance of the three doshas—pitta, vata, and kapha—is seen as the root cause of disease. Ayurvedic medicine, which continues to be practiced today, focuses on restoring harmony among these doshas to promote health.
Traditional Chinese medicine, which has been practiced for over two millennia, suggests that illnesses are more likely to affect a body that has been weakened by a disruption in the flow of qi, or life energy. Treatments like acupuncture aim to restore the balance of qi within the body, helping to prevent the spread of disease.
