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Death was encountered in a strikingly different way in Medieval Europe: people lived near burial grounds, human bones were repurposed for decoration, and the practice of bleeding corpses was employed as legal proof in murder investigations.
Here are some astonishing insights from the fascinating realm of the Middle Ages.
10. Living Among the Dead
During the Middle Ages, cemeteries were far from the solemn places of rest we think of today. Instead, they were bustling hubs of activity. Major events like local elections, trials, sermons, and even plays took place in these spaces. Prostitutes also frequented cemetery grounds as part of their work.
As historian Philippe Aries notes, cemeteries also served as marketplaces: because they were church-owned, they were free from taxes, making them desirable locations for small business owners.
9. Cruentation: Using Bleeding Corpses as Proof in Murder Cases
Cruentation, the belief that a dead body would bleed when touched by its murderer, was a widely accepted idea during the Middle Ages. King James’s *Daemonologie* (1597) mentions this phenomenon in the following manner:
“In a secret murder, if the corpse is ever touched by the murderer afterward, it will pour out blood as though the blood itself is crying out for vengeance against the killer.”
Cruentation was considered a legitimate legal practice, used to identify murderers from the time of the Germanic tribes until the seventeenth century. This belief stemmed from the notion that dead bodies retained a fragment of the life that had left them, giving them mystical powers.
8. Ossuaries
Medieval cemeteries often faced overcrowding. To create space for more burials, bones and skeletons were exhumed and neatly arranged in ossuaries, or 'charnel houses.' Many of these places became valued for their artistic qualities, as bones were arranged into decorative patterns and ornaments.
Ossuaries weren't just a practical solution; they carried a deeper religious significance. The display of bones was intended to prompt reflection on mortality. Typically, an inscription reading, 'You are what we were—we are what you shall be,' urged visitors to repent and spiritually prepare for death. Some of these ossuaries are still open for visitation today.
7. Revenants and Their Theological Dilemmas
The belief that the dead could return to interact with the living was widespread during the Middle Ages. Numerous reports exist of corpses emerging from their graves. One such collection of stories, recorded by the churchman William of Newburgh (12th Century, England), recounts how 'the corpses of the dead [...] leave their graves and wander around.' In Melrose Abbey, Scotland, monks were repeatedly visited by the ghost of a deceased priest who 'groaned and murmured in a disturbing manner.'
Revenants presented a major theological dilemma: were these resurrections divine miracles or demonic manifestations? The answer often depended on the specific circumstances, but it was generally believed that if a deceased body were inhabited by a demon, it would return to a lifeless state after undergoing an exorcism.
6. The Fear of Sudden Death
While today a quick death is often seen as a blessing, the Middle Ages held a very different view. Sudden deaths were reserved for murderers, suicides, and those who had offended God—not for the virtuous or righteous.
It was believed that those who died suddenly would cause their spirits to wander forever in the realm of the living. This belief arose from the notion that such an unexpected death prevented the deceased from spiritually preparing through confession and the last rites.
Treatises known as Ars Moriendi (‘The Art of Dying’) were created to guide people toward a 'good death.' These texts often depicted peaceful images of people dying in prayer, surrounded by loved ones, contrasted with depictions of sinners dying in the company of demons and terrifying creatures.
5. Danse Macabre
The 'Dance of Death,' frequently depicted in charnel houses in medieval and Renaissance cemeteries, shows various members of society being led away by dancing figures of death. The underlying message is clear: no matter our wealth or status, we all face the same unavoidable fate.
Interestingly, despite its somber theme, the Danse Macabre often carries a humorous undertone. Nuns are shown in compromising positions with their lovers, and doctors are depicted examining vials of their own urine, mocked by skeletons daring them to cure their own death, if they can.
While most depictions of death are mocking or indifferent, there is one notable exception. In the Danse Macabre of La Chaise-Dieu (France, 15th Century), Death is shown covering its face as it carries away a young child, perhaps in an effort to shield him from fear.
4. Transi Tombs
These tombs feature effigies of the deceased, with the bodies depicted in advanced stages of decomposition, often consumed by monstrous creatures, toads, or snakes. The term 'transi' refers to a body in the process of decay, not yet a skeleton but still identifiable as human.
In some cases, these tombs are designed with two levels: at the top, the person is shown peacefully departing from life, often in prayer. On the lower level, the same individual is depicted in a state of advanced decomposition.
The tomb of Louis XII and Anne of Brittany in St Denis (Paris, 16th Century) is particularly detailed; the artist captures every minute aspect. Beneath the figures of the king and queen in prayer, the two bodies are shown with the distinct marks of the embalmer’s stitches on their stomachs.
3. The Cult of Relics
The cult of relics is one of the most notable features of the Middle Ages. Entire bodies or body parts believed to belong to Christian saints were thought to possess powerful healing abilities.
The cult reached its zenith between the 11th and 13th centuries. People would travel vast distances to pray before the relics, seeking the saint’s intercession on their behalf.
Fragments of relics were even sewn into altar cloths, and it was believed that the Eucharist (Holy Communion) could only be celebrated on an altar covered with such sacred cloth.
2. Apparent Death
In the Middle Ages, the absence of breathing, movement, and responsiveness was generally deemed enough to declare someone dead. However, there are reports of rather peculiar methods used to confirm death. In La Chanson de Roland, the epic poem, Charlemagne bites Roland’s toe in hopes that the pain might revive him.
Medieval doctor Bernard de Gordon recommended methods such as loudly calling the person’s name, pulling their hair, twisting their fingers, and pricking them with a needle. If these techniques failed, he suggested placing a small ball of wool near the patient's mouth; if the threads moved, it indicated that the person was still breathing.
Cases of apparent death were not particularly common, as the deceased were often kept at home for several days prior to the funeral.
1. Frau Welt
These peculiar statues, typically found as decorative pieces in German cathedrals, depict young men or women in a state of beauty and vitality. While the front of the statue portrays a healthy, joyful figure, the back reveals a grotesque image of decaying flesh, horribly disfigured by maggots, worms, snakes, and toads.
Much like other elements on this list, Frau Welt held an allegorical meaning, symbolizing the illusion of the world: the fleeting nature of beauty, abundance, and life's simple pleasures, all of which lead to moral decay and corruption.
