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This list highlights 10 remarkable examples of human intellectual achievement. Some are impressive due to the rapid pace at which they were accomplished. All are striking for their immense challenges and far-reaching influence. Additional lists are certainly encouraged.
10. Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde Robert Louis Stevenson
Stevenson was deeply intrigued by the concept of whether free will could be overridden, leading to actions a person would typically reject. He explored this idea in his iconic novella about a scientist who develops a formula that transforms him into another identity. Initially unaware, Dr. Jekyll finds that his alternate persona, Mr. Hyde, is a ruthless misanthrope who delights in causing harm to others.
Hyde’s initial crime involves savagely beating a young girl, ultimately kicking her to death in the street. A year later, he murders a man with a cane. Why? Because he relishes it. Hyde is the complete opposite of Jekyll. In time, Jekyll recognizes the threat he poses to society and attempts to justify his actions in a letter to be read posthumously, confessing that he cannot predict whether Hyde will kill himself or face execution, but he knows that Hyde will eventually dominate Jekyll. Ultimately, Hyde does take his own life.
Stevenson composed this novella in just 3 days. His family noted that he was feverishly enthusiastic, reading half of the story aloud to them after a marathon session of writing through an entire day and night. When he completed it, he handed the first draft to his wife for proofreading. She believed the story would work better as an allegory about individuals struggling to be virtuous, only to be pulled deeper into their primal instincts.
Stevenson agreed with his wife’s assessment and decided to burn the original manuscript, then rewrite the entire story as an allegory in just 3 days (some sources claim 6 days).
9. Knight, Death, and the Devil Albrecht Durer
One of this lister’s favorite works of art is not a painting, but a copper engraving. Durer personally etched every line onto a copper plate with a burin, a tool similar to one used to open an oyster. A slight shift in the hand or body position could cause the burin to slip, marring the base metal and ruining the piece. Despite this, the work, often referenced alongside Melencolia I and St. Jerome in His Study, stands as one of Durer’s most intricate and detailed masterpieces. This is particularly impressive considering Durer’s works are known for their photorealistic quality in the art world.
What is most astonishing about this piece is its size: just 9.6 inches by 7.5 inches. Typically, artists create large works to accommodate fine details, but Durer managed to pack extraordinary detail into this small space. Many scholars consider the horse depicted to be the most perfectly drawn of all. The individual hairs of the horse’s coat, the dog beneath it, and even the windows in the distant castle are all rendered with remarkable precision. A work of this complexity usually takes an artist 2 to 4 years, but Durer completed it in only 5 months.
8. On Physical Lines of Force James Clerk Maxwell
The most pivotal event in 19th-century science unfolded in the brief span of 1861 and 1862, in Scotland. While the United States was embroiled in its Civil War, Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell was busy formulating the laws of electromagnetism. Without the mathematical framework Maxwell provided, it would be impossible to harness one of the universe’s fundamental forces: the power that generates lightning.
Although Thomas Edison is widely credited with inventing the light bulb, he wouldn't have known where to start without the groundwork laid by James Clerk Maxwell's four-part mathematical treatise, "On Physical Lines of Force." This work marked a significant leap forward, building on Michael Faraday's discovery of electromagnetic induction 40 years earlier, which led to the invention of the electric motor.
The rapid advancement of electrical engineering in the late 19th century was initially sparked by Faraday's discoveries. However, the real momentum came when Maxwell formulated his four revolutionary equations, unifying all previous observations, theories, and experiments concerning electricity and magnetism. These equations demonstrated that electricity, magnetism, and light are all different aspects of the same underlying force: the electromagnetic field.
Today, the concept of an electromagnetic field is well-known, but in Maxwell's time, it was a concept as mysterious as magic to the general public. Maxwell's equations revealed that both electricity and magnetism are surrounded by fields of power, and these fields usually exist together in nature. Moreover, these fields—whether individual or combined—propagate at the speed of light.
Maxwell's experiments also showed that electricity, magnetism, and light all travel as waves. He predicted the existence of these waves in any oscillating electromagnetic field and even calculated the speed of light, arriving at a value of 310,740,000 meters per second, which is very close to the accurate value of 299,792,458 meters per second. This understanding was crucial to the development of electrical engineering.
7. Messiah George Frederick Handel
Handel did not invent the oratorio, as some might suggest, but rather leveraged the form to his financial benefit during Christmastide, a time when secular operas were prohibited in Britain. By this point, Handel had already composed nine oratorios and was renowned for his expertise in Baroque counterpoint, a skill often considered second only to J.S. Bach's by many scholars.
Despite his success, Handel faced criticism, with some arguing that his music lacked depth. However, with the composition of Messiah, the criticism ceased. He wrote the entire oratorio in just 24 days, producing 259 pages of full orchestral score, with minimal corrections. Handel claimed that the Hallelujah Chorus came to him in a burst of inspiration, completed in just five hours of continuous writing. His servants—or niece, according to varying accounts—found him weeping at his desk, where he claimed to have witnessed Heaven open above him, with God enthroned in glory and angels singing. Handel said the Hallelujah Chorus was written as a direct divine dictation. The final Amen of the oratorio was completed in under a day.
6. Der Ring des Nibelungen Richard Wagner
Wagner's Ring Cycle did not come together in a brief period, unlike several other works on this list. The composition of the four operas took an astounding 26 years, with 12 of those years spent not composing a single note for the cycle. Instead, Wagner focused on other projects, including Tristan und Isolde and Die Meistersinger von Nurnberg.
The sheer scale of the Ring Cycle is almost unimaginable. It may very well be the most grandiose single work in all of literature, regardless of genre. Uniquely among opera composers, Wagner chose to write his own libretti, creating exceptional German poetry that he then set to music. Though his composition pace was slow, especially compared to composers like #3, Wagner compensated with the profound philosophical depth woven into his operas. His music may not appeal to all, but his remarkable skill at weaving leitmotifs—an idea he pioneered—into rich, contrapuntal textures is undeniable.
Wagner’s approach to composing music was not groundbreaking for its time. He would begin by sketching the main themes and developing them, followed by a second draft featuring only 2 or 3 staves: one for the vocals and one or two for the instrumental parts. This method is known as creating a piano score. Subsequent drafts would gradually add more detail to the orchestral parts until a version was ready for publication.
Wagner applied this process to all four of his operas, including the first, Das Rheingold, which is just over two and a half hours long and serves as an introduction to the other three. The typical opera spans around 3 hours, but Wagner's later works were considerably longer. Die Walkure runs for 5 and a half hours, Siegfried for 5 hours and 45 minutes, and Gotterdammerung, the longest conventional opera ever composed, stretches to 6 hours. Wagner intended these works to be performed consecutively, one per evening, over a span of four days.
5. The Statue of David Michelangelo Buonarroti
In 1464, the Overseers of the Office of Works of the Duomo (Operai) planned to commission a series of twelve Old Testament figures to decorate the pedestals of the buttresses at the Basilica di Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence. Donatello completed one such figure, Joshua, in 1410. His apprentice, Agostino di Duccio, was tasked with carving a 17-foot-high block of marble from the Fantiscritti quarries in Miseglia, which would eventually become part of this monumental project.
Agostino managed to outline where the legs would go (though not their exact pose) and may have even started to carve a hole between the ankles, but little else was done. He abandoned the project upon Donatello's death in 1466. For a decade, the massive block of marble was left outdoors, exposed to the elements—rained on, sunbathed, and windblown—until Antonio Rossellino was tasked with continuing the work. However, his contract was mysteriously canceled. Many scholars suggest that he might have been too intimidated to complete it.
This theory holds weight, as by that time, the marble was in poor condition for delicate sculpting: it had become highly porous, making it susceptible to chips and potential collapse. Furthermore, the block had eroded over the years, losing several inches of its height. Over the next 25 years, at least two dozen artists, including Leonardo da Vinci, were offered the project, but all declined, fearing it would soon crumble. Michelangelo, then only 26, ardently campaigned for the commission, which was finally granted to him on 16 August 1501, largely due to the success of his recent Pietà.
Michelangelo began working on David on 13 September 1501 and completed it two years and five months later, by the end of February 1504. For the first four months, he didn’t touch the marble. Instead, he spent the time sitting silently each morning, carefully contemplating the block. He forbid his assistants from working on it, focusing solely on mentally preparing himself before making his first strike with the chisel.
When Michelangelo finally finished, Leonardo da Vinci famously declared it the finest sculpture ever created. The Operai, however, decided that placing it 40 feet high on a buttress could risk its destruction. There’s a humorous anecdote in which the Operai turned to Leonardo for advice on how to lift the statue onto its pedestal. Da Vinci is said to have replied, 'Oh, I could do it. But I only take risks with my own work.'
The statue was transported, for four days, on rollers, across half a mile from Michelangelo's workshop to the Piazza della Signoria. In 1873, it was moved indoors to protect it from the weather and placed in the gallery of the Accademia di Belle Arti, where it stands today.
4. Symphony 8 Gustav Mahler
Mahler composed his most monumental symphony—an impressive feat in itself—in less than a month, between late June and mid-August 1906. He wrote it in Maiernigg, Austria, at his villa on the southern shore of Lake Worth, working in a small hut built for enjoying the picturesque views. During this period, the only time he left his hut was to briefly swim in the lake before retreating back to his creative sanctuary.
Known as the 'Symphony of a Thousand,' Mahler’s 8th Symphony doesn’t literally require a thousand musicians, although such numbers have been used in past performances without diminishing the work. The first movement is a colossal double fugue based on the 9th-century hymn 'Veni Creator Spiritus' by Rabanus Maurus, lasting roughly 23 minutes—quite lengthy by Classical standards. The second movement stretches for 53 minutes, the same duration as Beethoven’s entire 3rd Symphony. It sets the final scenes of Goethe's 'Faust,' almost in an oratorio style, portraying Faust’s salvation by Eternal Womanhood from Mephistopheles and his transcendence into the bliss of Heaven.
Though Mahler didn’t entirely approve of the symphony’s famous moniker, he surely couldn’t have been disappointed by the reaction at its premiere. The audience included figures such as Arnold Schoenberg, Anton Webern, Camille Saint-Saens, Richard Strauss, conductor Leopold Stokowski, and writers Thomas Mann and Arthur Schnitzler. Mahler, one of Classical music’s greatest conductors (on par with Wagner, Franz Liszt, Leonard Bernstein, and Karl Bohm), led the performance—the last time he would conduct his own work. During the performance, some women fainted, and grown men wept. The applause following the final note lasted an astounding 20 minutes.
3. Principia Mathematica Isaac Newton
In 1685 and 1686, Sir Isaac Newton wrote a comprehensive 450-page book in Latin that laid the foundations for classical mechanics (excluding relativistic mechanics; see #2). He formulated the Law of Universal Gravitation, developed both integral and differential calculus, generalized the Binomial Theorem, and created Newton’s Method for approximating the roots of functions. He also contributed to systematizing the power series, calculated the speed of sound in air analytically based on Boyle’s law, and deduced the oblateness of Earth, meaning the planet’s slight flattening at the poles and bulging at the equator. Newton addressed the precession of the equinoxes by attributing it to the Moon’s gravitational influence on Earth’s shape. Additionally, he theorized the orbits of comets and pioneered the study of the Moon's orbital irregularities.
Newton accomplished all of this in just 18 months. His journey with calculus began in 1665, at the age of 23, with deep contemplation and problem-solving. After two decades of research and analysis, he began to formalize his ideas. His 1684 publication 'De motu corporum in gyrum' (On the motion of bodies in orbit) came slightly ahead of Leibniz’s own calculus breakthrough. However, while Leibniz approached calculus for pure mathematics, Newton’s development was driven by his need to solve pressing scientific questions, particularly 'What keeps the Moon in the sky? Why doesn’t it fall to Earth?' Inspired by observing falling apples in his orchard in Woolsthorpe, Newton established his renowned 3 Laws of Motion in the spring of 1685, propelling human knowledge for the next three centuries, until #2 revolutionized physics once more.
Newton's monumental contributions to mathematics ultimately forced the Catholic Church to concede its long-standing opposition to heliocentrism. The Church had resisted the groundbreaking work of Copernicus, Galileo, Brahe, and Kepler, but it could not ignore Newton’s proofs. His 'Principia,' a 450-page masterpiece, provided irrefutable mathematical evidence that sealed the fate of the Church's outdated, dogmatic views and helped transition science from speculation to empirical reality, giving birth to classical mechanics.
2. Theory of Relativity Albert Einstein
To properly convey Einstein's groundbreaking discovery, one would need a solid grasp of the theory and the ability to convert the complex mathematics into something easily understandable—all within a short time. Rather than diving into the full complexity, let’s focus on the core concepts of Einstein’s revolutionary ideas.
Special relativity, a theory Einstein formulated in 1905, reshapes our understanding of space and time. It suggests that space and time are intertwined as different aspects of the same entity, much like a fabric that bends when objects of varying masses are placed on it, similar to how a rubber sheet would warp under the weight of objects.
According to Einstein’s theory, 'the laws of physics are the same for all observers in uniform motion relative to each other,' and 'the speed of light in a vacuum remains constant for all observers, no matter their motion or the motion of the light source.'
These principles lead to extraordinary conclusions, such as the ability for time to stretch—meaning a moving clock can be observed to tick slower than one at rest—and that energy and mass are interchangeable, encapsulated in the famous equation E = mc squared.
The impact of Einstein’s theory cannot be overstated. Not only has it dramatically shaped the fields of mathematics and science as we know them, but the concept of 'warping space-time' has also become a staple in science fiction, especially in time-travel stories. Special relativity bridges the gap between classical mechanics and the electromagnetic field, while general relativity extends this by reconciling gravity with these fields.
One of the most fascinating aspects of Einstein’s theory of relativity is its implications for time dilation. He proved that nothing can exceed the speed of light, because doing so would cause the object in question to gain infinite mass, which would require infinite energy to keep moving. However, mathematically, it's possible for a person to travel at the speed of light. A person who travels for 20 years away from Earth and then returns after 20 years would have traveled 40 light-years. While the traveler would have aged 40 years, Earth would have aged thousands of years by the time of their return. Objectively, the traveler would become the oldest person ever known to have lived.
Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity, formulated in 1916, incorporates gravity into the framework of his equations and describes gravitation as a geometric property of space-time. While often thought to replace earlier physics, it’s actually a modernization of those theories. However, it remains in conflict with quantum physics, and the quest for a theory that integrates both continues to elude mathematicians today. The person who solves this problem will be regarded as the successor to Einstein.
1. Symphonies 39, 40, and 41 Wolfgang A. Mozart
Mozart was well-known for his remarkable speed in composing music. His natural genius was such that he rarely made revisions to his compositions—some works were virtually unchanged from the first draft to the final version. Towards the end of his life, as his health declined, he did make revisions to his ongoing works, especially his Requiem. But in 1788, three years before his death, Mozart was in peak health and at the height of his creative powers.
Earlier, we discussed Wagner’s approach to composition. In stark contrast, Mozart, at the height of his creative powers, did not engage in the typical practice of drafting multiple versions of his works. Instead, he composed full orchestral scores in his first drafts, determining both the music and instrumentation at once. This practice was highly uncommon in classical music, with most composers preferring to write piano scores first and orchestrate later.
Mozart’s last three symphonies, created in the summer of 1788, came at a time of personal hardship. He had relocated from the heart of Vienna to the suburb of Alsergrund, where he struggled financially, even resorting to begging friends and nobility for assistance. His sorrow was compounded by the recent death of his infant daughter, Theresia. Despite these challenges, he composed three of the most remarkable symphonies in classical music. These works are celebrated for their lyrical melodies, intellectual depth, entertainment value, and impeccable balance and complexity. They are frequently considered his three greatest symphonies.
The 40th Symphony is one of only two minor-key symphonies Mozart composed, the other being the famous 25th, both in g minor. Mozart completed the 40th Symphony in just one month, from June 26 to July 25, a pace he quickly surpassed by composing his 41st Symphony, known as the 'Jupiter,' in just 17 days. His 39th Symphony, equally splendid, was finished in three weeks, from mid-May to June 26. According to his wife, the moment Mozart completed the final chords of his 39th Symphony, he got up from his billiard table, went to the bathroom, and returned to immediately begin the first page of the orchestral score for the 40th Symphony, with no corrections or mistakes. 'He only stopped there because his ink bottle was empty,' she recalled in a letter to a friend.
1. Summa Theologica St Thomas Aquinas
The Summa Theologiae (Latin: Compendium of Theology or Theological Compendium; often referred to as the Summa Theologica or simply the Summa) was written by Thomas Aquinas between 1265 and 1274. Though left unfinished, it stands as one of the most significant works in the history of philosophy and Western literature. Serving as both a guide for beginners in theology and a comprehensive compendium of the Church's key theological teachings, the Summa covers essential topics in Christian theology. Its structure follows a cyclical path: the existence of God, Creation, Humanity, the purpose of Man, Christ, the Sacraments, and a return to God.
Among the many remarkable aspects of the Summa Theologica, one of its most notable features is the five arguments for the existence of God, known as the Quinque viae (Latin: five ways). Throughout the work, Aquinas draws upon Sacred Scripture, Aristotle, Augustine of Hippo, and various other Jewish, Greek, Roman, Christian, and Muslim scholars. Each argument is carefully constructed, providing logical reasoning and support for the conclusions drawn. Its profound impact endures to this day, with the Summa serving as the primary educational resource (in five volumes) for seminary students in the Catholic Church.
The Summa Theologica is designed to provide a comprehensive account of the history of the cosmos and offer a framework for understanding the meaning of life itself. The full contents of the Summa can be accessed here. [Source]
