Buzz
For millennia, the hieroglyphic writing of ancient Egypt has captivated people from around the world. A Greek visitor to Egypt once left a graffiti on the tomb of Ramses V, lamenting, 'I cannot read the hieroglyphics.' These hieroglyphs, pictorial symbols used by the Egyptians, adorned countless texts in their society. However, the ability to decipher them was lost for nearly 1500 years, even to the Egyptians themselves. Thanks to the work of researchers, much has been uncovered about ancient Egyptian culture through the translation of these ancient writings.
Below are ten of the most compelling hieroglyphic texts discovered from the sands of Egypt.
9. The Rosetta Stone
Napoleon’s conquests played a crucial role in unlocking the mystery of hieroglyphic texts for Europe. Along with his army, he brought scholars, artists, and scientists to Egypt. In 1799, a remarkable black stone was discovered, bearing inscriptions in Egyptian hieroglyphs, the demotic script used by the Egyptians, and ancient Greek. The three texts, although written in different languages, conveyed the same message, and by comparing the Greek translation with the hieroglyphic text, scholars were able to decode the ancient script.
After Napoleon’s defeat, many of the treasures he had seized from Egypt, including the Rosetta Stone, ended up in British hands. Copies of the inscriptions were distributed across Europe. The first significant breakthrough came when scholars compared the names of the kings inscribed on the stone. Once it was understood that hieroglyphs represented syllables, translating the script became easier, although still challenging.
Despite its immense importance to Egyptology, the actual content of the Rosetta Stone inscription is rather unremarkable. It primarily documents the anniversary of King Ptolemy V’s ascension to the throne.
9. The Pyramid Texts
Inside the towering pyramids, built to house the remains of pharaohs around 2400-2200 BC, long inscriptions were etched into the stone walls. These inscriptions, known as the Pyramid Texts, were intended only for the eyes of the departed ruler. They provide instructions on how the pharaoh should navigate the afterlife and are the oldest known funeral texts from ancient Egypt.
The texts are a blend of guidance for the pharaoh’s soul, prayers from priests, and spells meant to help the king pass through the underworld’s various stages. Short incantations were also included to protect the tomb and the king’s body from being disturbed. These protections, however, seem to have been ineffective, as all pyramids were plundered in antiquity.
The pharaoh could be assured of a favorable reception in the afterlife, but he was also capable of offering aid to those still living. In the pyramid of Unas, we read the words, 'How pleasant is your condition! You become a spirit, o Unas, among your brothers, the gods. How changed, how changed is your state! Therefore protect your children! Beware of your border which is on Earth! Put on your body and come toward them!'
8. The Book of the Dead
In contrast to the Pyramid Texts, which were exclusively for the rulers of Egypt, the Book of the Dead was available to anyone who could afford to purchase it. As a result, a large number of these texts have been discovered in Egyptian tombs and sarcophagi dating from 1550-50 BC. The Book of the Dead was more accessible as it didn’t need to be carved in stone or painted on a coffin but could be bought on papyrus. Some of these papyri were enormous—one discovered recently measured 52.5 feet (16 meters) long.
The Book of the Dead consists of a series of individual spells designed to guide a soul through the afterlife. Some spells offer protection from demons, while others aim to preserve the power of the deceased. A total of 192 spells have been found, though not all copies contain the same collection of spells.
One of the most famous spells in the Book of the Dead is Spell 125, which describes the weighing of the heart—a ritual that all souls must undergo. The heart of the deceased is placed on a scale and measured against the feather of Maat. If the heart is weighed down with sins, the scale tips, and the soul is devoured by the terrifying hippo goddess Ammit. If the heart passes the test, the soul is granted access to the Kingdom of Osiris.
7. King Neferkare and General Sasenet
Not all hieroglyphic writings focused on religious matters. Ancient Egypt had a strong literary tradition that explored the actions and lives of its pharaohs. Pepi II Neferkare, who ruled around 2250 BC, saw his reign marked by a weakening of pharaonic power and growing unrest within the kingdom. Not long after his reign, the Old Kingdom ended in violent civil wars.
It’s perhaps no surprise that Neferkare’s rule is not remembered fondly. A fragmented text recovered from a papyrus, a shard of pottery, and a wooden plaque seems to connect the pharaoh’s downfall to perceptions of his homosexuality. The text describes how Neferkare would make secret visits to the home of his general, Sasenet. Upon arrival, it’s said that he 'threw a brick after stamping with his foot. Then a ladder was lowered to him, and he climbed up.' The visit is recorded as lasting for four hours, only ending 'after his majesty had done that which he had wanted to do with him.'
Was Neferkare engaging in sexual relations with his general? Was this text an attempt to ridicule the weak pharaoh? These are questions that still remain, yet this may provide an important clue to understanding the views on homosexuality in ancient Egypt.
6. Story of Sinuhe
The Story of Sinuhe is an exemplary piece of ancient Egyptian literature, dating back to around 1875 BC. This narrative recounts the possibly fictional adventures of a man named Sinuhe.
Sinuhe was once serving in the army under an Egyptian prince when news reached him of the pharaoh's death. Fearing the uncertainty of the future, Sinuhe hid behind a bush and fled Egypt. Upon leaving, he encountered a tribal chieftain he knew, marrying his daughter. After several military encounters and a victorious duel against an enemy, Sinuhe began yearning for his homeland. He prayed to the gods for mercy, asking to be buried in Egypt and for a pardon from the new pharaoh.
In Egypt, Sinuhe's return led to the construction of a grand tomb. 'A stone pyramid was built for me in the midst of the pyramids. The masons who build tombs constructed it. A master draughtsman designed it. A master sculptor carved it. The overseers of construction in the necropolis busied themselves with it. All the necessary equipment for the tomb shaft was supplied. Mortuary priests were assigned to me. A funerary domain was created for me. It had fields and a garden in the appropriate place, as is customary for a Companion of the first rank. My statue was coated in gold, and its skirt adorned with electrum.' For an Egyptian, having the proper tomb was the ultimate form of fulfillment.
5. Narmer Palette
The Narmer Palette is one of the oldest surviving historical artifacts, dating back to around 3200 BC. It is also home to some of the earliest hieroglyphic symbols ever uncovered. This large stone plaque is intricately etched with imagery that has prompted scholars to speculate on its exact meaning.
Originally intended as a tool for grinding makeup or pigment powders, the palette may have served a more ceremonial purpose. On its reverse side, various animals are depicted, along with a man wearing the Red Crown of Lower Egypt. This figure is notably much larger than those around him. On the front side, a colossal figure wearing the White Crown of Upper Egypt strikes down an adversary. Above this figure are symbols representing a catfish and a chisel, which correspond to the sounds n’r and mr—this figure is identified as Narmer.
The early hieroglyphs, alongside the imagery on the palette, have been interpreted as suggesting that Narmer was the ruler responsible for uniting Upper and Lower Egypt into one kingdom. The name Narmer itself implies a powerful leader. His name can be translated to 'Fierce Catfish.'
4. Great Hymn to Aten
Egypt is often regarded as a civilization characterized by stability and longevity. Yet, throughout its extensive history, there were periods of transformation, even in religious beliefs. One of the most radical changes occurred under Pharaoh Akhenaten, who sought to impose the worship of his personal god, Aten, on the entire nation of Egypt.
Akhenaten reigned around 1350 BC, marking a dramatic shift to highlight the power of his newly established faith. The royal family's names were altered to incorporate Aten, a distinct artistic style was introduced, and he established a new city at Amarna to serve as his capital. Additionally, he created fresh prayers dedicated to his deity. The Great Hymn to Aten was composed to celebrate this religious transformation.
Aten is envisioned as the sun itself. It is described as rising in the east, shining brightly, with its rays holding the lands together. As Aten sets, people retreat to their homes and rest as if they were dead. All that is good originates from Aten, and, notably, Akhenaten is his divine son.
The faith of Atenism did not endure long after Akhenaten's reign. His likeness was erased from monuments, his capital was abandoned, and Egypt reverted to the worship of its traditional gods.
3. Graffito of Esmet-Akhom
On August 24, AD 394, a priest inscribed a message on the wall of the Temple of Philae next to an image of the god Mandulis. This inscription is believed to be the final use of hieroglyphics in ancient Egypt.
This graffito by Esmet-Akhom represents a pivotal moment in Egypt's history. The temple where his family had long served stood at the very edge of the Roman Empire by this time. In AD 391, Emperor Theodosius decreed that all pagan temples be shut down. The continued existence of this temple can be attributed to its location just beyond the reach of those enforcing the spread of Christianity.
The hieroglyphic inscription reads, "Before Mandulis, son of Horus, by the hand of Nesmeterakhem, son of Nesmeter, the Second Priest of Isis, for all time and eternity. Words spoken by Mandulis, lord of the Abaton, great god." Another inscription in Demotic records the exact date.
There are later inscriptions found at the temple site, but they are written in Greek. Hieroglyphs, as a written form, gradually faded away.
2. Graffiti
Writing in hieroglyphs was an expert skill carried out by trained scribes, and the number of individuals capable of reading hieroglyphic texts was likely quite small. As a result, fewer writings from ordinary people have survived, but some graffiti in hieroglyphs offer a glimpse into daily life that isn't always found in official records.
Within the Saqqara necropolis, numerous fascinating inscriptions have been uncovered. One of these features the outline of two feet, encircled by text. The creator of this graffito wished for his name to last as long as the temple on which it was inscribed. Other individuals simply carved their names into buildings, in much the same way as modern graffiti artists do.
At times, hieroglyphic graffiti is found in hidden or unlikely spots within temples, places where no human would expect to find them. These markings were likely intended as a form of invocation, calling on the gods to witness the writer’s devotion. Occasionally, inscriptions are discovered on stone that was later covered in plaster—though unseen by others, perhaps the gods were meant to see them.
1. Diary of Merer
There remains a great deal of misinformation about how the pyramids of Egypt were constructed. These false ideas began early. The ancient Greek historian Herodotus claimed that Egyptian priests told him the pyramids were built by slaves. However, archaeological evidence has proven that the workers were actually paid for their labor. A text discovered in 2013, the oldest known hieroglyphic text on papyrus, may provide further insight into the construction of the pyramids.
The papyri were found in caves along the Red Sea, originally built to store boats. Written during the reign of Pharaoh Khufu by a mid-ranking civil servant named Merer, these texts serve as a detailed logbook documenting the transportation of monumental stones. Merer records that each month he shipped 200 limestone blocks, each weighing over two tons.
What is the connection to the pyramids? Khufu’s burial site was the Great Pyramid of Giza, originally covered in brilliant white limestone. This text links us to those who were behind the creation of this enormous structure.
