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Hosted by Roman Mars, 99% Invisible explores the world of design, architecture, and innovation. Behind each design lies a captivating story of daring visions and audacious plans. The show delves into the forces that drive people to create and the lasting effects these creations have on our world.
10. ‘Billy Possum’
In 1902, Theodore Roosevelt went on a hunting trip in Mississippi. His guide found a black bear, struck it on the head, and tied it to a tree to give Roosevelt a chance to take the shot. However, upon seeing the unfortunate animal, Roosevelt couldn’t bring himself to fire.
The bear was so weak and emaciated that Roosevelt had one of his companions put it out of its misery. But that part of the story wasn’t widely shared. Instead, the myth of Roosevelt’s compassion toward the creature spread, especially after a political cartoon depicted a lovable bear. This inspired someone to turn the tale into the iconic toy bear we all recognize today.
But the teddy bear wasn’t the only animal doll to capture attention in the early 20th century. In this episode of 99% Invisible, Roman Mars and writer Jon Mooallem team up to tell the story of the Billy Possum—a toy that failed to win over the hearts of America's children.
After the immense popularity of the teddy bear, toy manufacturers were eager to cash in on the next big stuffed animal sensation. They also sought to link their new toy with a US president, and the obvious pick was president-elect William Howard Taft. In 1909, the Atlanta Chamber of Commerce threw a grand party for the rotund politician, featuring a true Southern delicacy.
The main dish was possum and taters—a roasted opossum served atop a bed of sweet potatoes. As Taft finished his meal, the people of Atlanta surprised him with a stuffed opossum doll in his honor. They named it “Billy Possum,” and everyone believed this new toy would become a national sensation.
In fact, Billy Possum became so popular that postcards and pins featuring the toy were made, and even a catchy song was written about it. But despite all the publicity, the toy was a commercial failure. While Billy Possum played dead, the teddy bear continued to dominate the market.
So, why did one stuffed animal succeed while the other faltered? As Jon Mooallem explains, it all comes down to the origin story. Roosevelt’s sympathy for the bear inspired a nation. In contrast, Taft’s association with possum meat lacked that emotional appeal. Additionally, Roman Mars points out a crucial detail: “Opossums are ugly, and nobody likes them.”
9. ‘Longbox’
In 1985, Tipper Gore established the Parents Music Resource Center, a committee that advocated for music censorship. They were the ones behind the infamous black-and-white parental advisory labels. Thanks to their influence, music censorship spread across the country. One judge even went so far as to ban specific hip-hop artists from performing within his jurisdiction.
The music industry, especially Virgin Records executive Jeff Ayeroff, took issue with this bullying. Ayeroff believed that politicians had power over music because young people weren’t voting. In response, he launched Rock the Vote, an initiative designed to empower young voters and challenge pro-censorship politicians.
Jeff Gold of Warner Bros. was also involved in Rock the Vote, but he faced a separate challenge. When CDs first came onto the market, music stores didn’t have the proper display racks for them. To address this, the music industry created the longbox, a cardboard sleeve that contained both the CD and its jewel case, making it easier to store in shops that were used to selling LPs. However, once the CD was purchased, the longbox was discarded. Many artists criticized this as wasteful and environmentally damaging.
One of those bands was REM, who didn’t want their album Out of Time to be sold in a longbox. According to 99% Invisible producer Whitney Jones, Ayeroff and Gold came up with a clever plan that made Out of Time “the most politically significant album in the history of the United States.” In the episode titled “Longbox,” Jones speaks with Roman Mars about how this strategy transformed the American political landscape.
The concept was straightforward. Each longbox would feature a petition on its back, advocating for the Motor Voter Act, a law that would simplify the process for young people to register to vote at the DMV. When fans bought Out of Time, they would just cut off the back of the longbox, sign their name, and mail the petition to their local Congressperson.
REM embraced the idea. In March 1991, Congressional offices were flooded with cardboard petitions. Politicians took notice, and the Motor Voter Act was passed. While George H.W. Bush vetoed the bill, Bill Clinton signed it into law once he took office.
Since then, over 150 million people have registered to vote at the DMV, thanks to REM. It's a bit ironic, though, considering that Al Gore, Clinton's vice president and husband to Tipper, the woman who started it all, played a pivotal role in this achievement.
8. ‘Clean Trains’
New York City in the past was infamous for its “graffiti-covered subways” and trains that frequently broke down. In 1981 alone, there were a staggering 1,800 subway car fires. This situation arose because the Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA) was forced to reduce its budget.
In a misguided effort, the MTA cut back on essential services like mechanics and regular maintenance checks. Add to that the presence of teenage gangs, and it's no surprise that some described the subway system as a “Dantean hellscape.”
During the 1970s, New York politicians believed that removing graffiti would send a strong message to the public. One mayor responded by erecting razor wire fences around the trains and deploying vicious guard dogs. However, the vandals simply cut through the fences and bribed the dogs with treats.
Another solution involved painting all the trains white to conceal the graffiti. But this plan backfired, giving the artists a blank canvas. Before long, the so-called “Great White Fleet” was covered in new tags.
In a last-ditch effort, New York turned to David Gunn, the Wyatt Earp of the transit world. He had successfully tamed unruly subway systems across the nation. However, even Gunn hesitated at the prospect of taking on New York, which he considered the ‘Tombstone’ of transportation. He initially thought it was a ‘suicide mission,’ but ultimately, his mom convinced him to take the job.
In ‘Clean Trains,’ reporter Ann Heppermann and the ever-present Roman Mars dive into how Gunn launched the Clean Train Program, a strategy that implemented ‘zero tolerance for graffiti.’ If a train car was bombed, it would be immediately pulled from service—even during rush hour. The car would only be reinstated once the graffiti was removed. Gunn also managed to secure additional funding for mechanics and managers to repair the dilapidated trains.
Thanks to Gunn's firm approach, New York officially defeated graffiti on May 12, 1989. However, the Clean Train Program turned NYC’s subways into a coveted canvas for graffiti artists. Today, tagging a train can result in jail time and substantial fines. Yet, many artists still travel to New York from all over the globe, risking punishment just to mark the trains. Once authorities spot the graffiti, the car is swiftly removed, preventing anyone from admiring the artist’s work.
But hey, that’s what Instagram is for.
7. ‘Pagodas And Dragon Gates’
Once upon a time, San Francisco’s Chinatown appeared just like the rest of the city—with old brick buildings and no grand embellishments. So what sparked the transformation of this neighborhood into an Asian-inspired wonderland?
As detailed by 99% Invisible, the story of Chinatown’s creation is one of self-preservation. In the early 1900s, Chinese immigrants endured widespread persecution, which ultimately led to the birth of Chinatown.
When white residents abandoned their homes, the Chinese immigrants moved in. But once they had settled, they found that they weren’t allowed to leave. In this way, Chinatown became both a prison and a sanctuary—offering relative safety as long as they stayed within the confines of their neighborhood.
Everything changed in 1906 when a 7.8-magnitude earthquake triggered a catastrophic fire that destroyed Chinatown. With the area now cleared and valuable real estate up for grabs, city planners saw an opportunity to relocate the Chinese immigrants to the outskirts of the city, near the slaughterhouses.
However, the Chinese community fought back. Since San Francisco served as a key port for American-Chinese trade, several influential Chinese business leaders threatened to move their operations to a different city if they were displaced. As a result, city officials allowed the Chinese to remain in their neighborhood.
Architect Look Tin Eli was brought in to redesign the area. Rather than rebuilding Victorian-style homes, he incorporated distinct Asian-inspired elements into the architecture. He placed pagodas atop buildings and adorned structures with Chinese motifs, giving the neighborhood a distinctly Eastern vibe.
In truth, this new architecture was more for appearance than authenticity—much like a fortune cookie. For years, Chinese immigrants were despised for their 'foreignness.' Rumors spread that they lived in underground hideouts, and many viewed Chinatown as a den of opium and prostitution.
Understanding that white San Franciscans would always see their Chinese neighbors as outsiders, Look Tin Eli decided to amplify the 'Asian-ness' of Chinatown in a way that was palatable to Western sensibilities. He crafted a more sanitized, amusement park-style aesthetic designed to ease tensions and win over skeptical residents. And, in a way, it worked.
As tourists and money began pouring into Chinatown, many newspapers began publishing more favorable stories about the immigrant community. While this didn’t completely erase racism, it did offer the Chinese community some added protection in a foreign land.
6. ‘Awareness’
When people reminisce about the 1980s, they recall Reaganomics, Rubik's Cubes, and some truly awful fashion choices. Sadly, they also remember the rise of HIV/AIDS. Although the disease affects more people today, in the early '80s, there was no public discussion and no significant push for research. Meanwhile, people were suffering and dying in silence.
But this all changed when a group of artists, armed with scissors and red ribbons, stepped in.
In 'Awareness,' producer Audrey Quinn tells the story of Visual AIDS, an artist collective based in New York. The members, all of whom had friends battling AIDS, recognized the lack of conversation surrounding the epidemic. Determined to spark change, they began weaving the theme of HIV/AIDS into their work. However, their most significant public relations breakthrough came with the creation of the looping red ribbon, the symbol of AIDS awareness.
Drawing inspiration from the yellow ribbons traditionally seen during wartime, the artists selected red to represent blood. They began distributing these ribbons for free on the streets. However, things escalated dramatically at the 1991 Tony Awards. The artists persuaded renowned fashion designers to have their clients wear the red ribbons on their clothes. Throughout the evening, stars like Jeremy Irons and Kevin Spacey proudly wore the pins on their lapels as they took the stage.
But the actors weren't allowed to explain why they wore the ribbons. The network even threatened to cut to a commercial break if anyone mentioned AIDS. But this secrecy only sparked more curiosity. The ribbons became a hot topic, and soon they appeared on celebrity chests at the Emmys, Grammys, and Oscars. Before long, people all across the country—from New York socialites to local church groups—began making and wearing their own ribbons in support of AIDS victims.
The ribbon became such a cultural phenomenon that The New York Times declared 1991 'The Year of the Ribbon.' Thanks to Visual AIDS and their efforts, the US government passed new legislation addressing AIDS and began allocating funds for HIV research.
Since the advent of the AIDS awareness ribbons, countless other causes have adopted similar symbols. Today, you'll see hundreds of colorful looped ribbons raising awareness for a variety of issues, from breast cancer to bullying.
5. ‘Monumental Dilemma’
Monuments are complex creations. These towering statues are intended to celebrate remarkable individuals. But what happens when the person being honored isn't exactly a hero? What if the monument is dedicated to someone whose actions were less than admirable? Should the statue remain, preserved as a part of history, or should it be dismantled and forgotten?
Few monuments capture this dilemma as well as the Hannah Duston statue. Situated on an island in Boscawen, New Hampshire, this 9-meter (30-foot) sculpture portrays a colonial woman holding a tomahawk in one hand and Native American scalps in the other. As 99% Invisible producer Jack Rodolico details, the story behind these gruesome war trophies is a deeply contentious one.
In 1697, Hannah Duston, her infant daughter, and her maid were abducted by Abenaki Native Americans. Duston recounts that one of the Abenaki warriors killed her baby by smashing it against a tree. Eventually, Duston and the maid were handed over to another group of Native Americans, this time mostly consisting of women and children, on an island in what is now Boscawen.
That night, Duston managed to escape. After waking the maid and another captive, Duston slaughtered 10 of the sleeping Abenaki, taking their scalps as trophies. Among her victims were two mothers and six children. Satisfied with her bloody revenge, Duston stole a canoe, and she and the maid returned to their settlement. A few days later, Duston and her husband sold the scalps in Boston for cash.
Duston’s tale spread across America, turning her into a colonial legend. However, like most celebrities, her fame eventually waned—until she was rediscovered in the early 1800s. This period, marked by the ideology of Manifest Destiny, inspired writers who found new meaning in Duston’s story.
Before long, Hannah Duston’s story appeared in everything from school textbooks to children's books, even in the works of Henry David Thoreau. However, these accounts often overlooked the brutal details of her actions, such as her slaughtering children. In most retellings, the children were instead depicted as warriors.
In 1874, Duston was honored with her own monument, which also happens to be the oldest monument in the United States dedicated to a woman. In recent years, the statue has become a point of controversy. As 99% Invisible producer Jack Rodolico uncovered, the statue is neglected and uncared for. Should this monument be left to deteriorate due to its controversial past, or should it be restored in recognition of it being the first statue honoring an American woman?
4. 'Holdout'
The Oscar-winning movie Up tells the story of Carl Fredricksen, a curmudgeonly old man who finds himself living amidst a construction site. Luckily for Carl, he’s able to attach his house to a cluster of balloons and float off on an incredible adventure. Unfortunately, not everyone has that kind of freedom.
In 'Holdout,' Roman Mars and producer Katie Mingle recount a real-life version of this story, about Edith Macefield, a stubborn elderly woman who refused to leave her home when developers sought to build a shopping mall in Ballard, Seattle, in 2006.
Macefield had called Ballard home for nearly half a century, and no amount of money or persuasion was going to get her to move. Even when developers offered her $1 million for her $120,000 house, along with covering all her medical bills, Macefield turned them down.
At nearly 90 years old and with no children to consider, what use would she have for a million dollars? So, Macefield refused to budge, and the developers constructed a massive shopping mall that surrounded three sides of her home.
Looking out of her window, she saw nothing but a brick wall, practically within arm's reach. Yet, despite the inconvenience, she dug in her heels and remained true to her grumpy nature. If any reporters came by, she told them to get lost. The only person she tolerated was Barry Martin, the superintendent in charge of the construction.
Although Martin was responsible for building the mall, he formed a friendship with Macefield and became her caregiver. He drove her to hair appointments, cooked her meals, and even spent weekends watching movies with the 86-year-old. Through their time together, he learned that she had once been a World War II spy, played saxophone with Tommy Dorsey, and was related to the famous Benny Goodman.
For nearly two years, Martin took care of Macefield. When she passed away in 2008, she left her house to him. He sold it to an investor, but by early 2016, the house remained untouched. There were discussions about demolishing it, but Martin believed Macefield wouldn’t have minded. She had no care for what happened to the house after she was gone, but while she was alive, she wasn’t moving anywhere.
3. 'The Worst Smell On Earth'
At first glance, Liquid ASS doesn’t exactly seem like a noble creation. Designed by prankster Allen Wittman, it’s contained in a small spray bottle, and the scent is exactly what you’d expect from the name.
Unsurprisingly, Wittman’s invention became popular among teenagers and shock jocks, such as Howard Stern. However, what seemed like a juvenile product would eventually transcend its childish beginnings and go on to save lives.
In “Worst Smell in the World,” Roman Mars and Amy Standen delve into how Liquid ASS became a crucial part of military training, thanks to Stu Segall, a 1990s TV producer known for shows like Hunter and Renegade. After 9/11, networks reduced the amount of violent content, leaving Segall out of work and his sets unused.
That’s when Segall came up with a brilliant idea: What if he used his sets to train soldiers? He envisioned recreating a fake Iraqi market to give young troops a taste of life in a foreign country. Segall built prayer towers, hired Iraqi actors, and filled stalls with fake produce. As soldiers roamed the recreated environment, Segall played sounds of gunfire, explosions, and scenes from Saving Private Ryan to make it more immersive.
This hands-on experience helped soldiers prepare for war, but Segall didn’t stop there. He also wanted medics to gain practical experience. To do this, he outfitted actors with Cut Suits—full-body prosthetics similar to fatsuits—which allowed medics in training to practice making incisions on a simulated victim. Fake intestines hung from the prosthetic body, and that’s where Liquid ASS enters the picture.
During training, medics would often perform operations on these fake organs. As they worked to sew up the entrails, Segall and his team would release the smell of Liquid ASS, because the worst-case scenario would be for the organs to tear open. Fecal matter would spill into the body, creating a dangerous and difficult situation, especially with bombs going off in the background.
Liquid ASS helped prepare medics for the harsh realities of combat. When they’re out in the field and encounter a real emergency, the familiarity of the foul stench will help them stay calm, remembering their training with the world’s worst gag gift.
2. ‘Vulcanite Dentures’
While most episodes of 99% Invisible delve into designs and innovations that make the world better, “Vulcanite Dentures” takes us back to the 19th century, where an upset dentist made a hasty, impactful decision.
To understand the story, let's talk dentures. In the past, artificial teeth were a luxury for the wealthy, crafted from gold or ivory. But everything changed when vulcanite, a cheap hard rubber, became widely available. Suddenly, prosthetic teeth became affordable to the masses.
And then, Josiah Bacon entered the scene.
Bacon was employed by the Goodyear Dental Vulcanite Company, which in 1864 acquired the patent for vulcanite. However, the origins of this patent weren’t exactly above board. In the 1850s, a dubious figure, Dr. John Cummings, applied for a vulcanite patent, despite not being the true inventor. He faced multiple rejections before finally being granted the patent in 1864, which he then handed over to the Vulcanite Company. Through some shady dealings, Bacon ended up with all the financial benefits from this new patent.
Before long, dentists who used vulcanite dentures were hit with steep annual fees and hefty royalties, all of which Bacon personally collected. He crisscrossed the country, prosecuting dentists and demanding payments. If they wanted to continue using vulcanite, they had to comply with Bacon’s demands. This is where Samuel Chalfant comes into the picture.
Chalfant, a dentist, refused to pay the exorbitant fees and fled. Enraged, Bacon pursued him across the country, eventually catching up with him in San Francisco in 1879. Defeated, Chalfant allegedly went to Bacon’s hotel to seek forgiveness, bringing a pistol with him. During their heated exchange, Chalfant claimed the gun went off accidentally. Regardless of his intent, Josiah Bacon’s fate was sealed.
Chalfant was sentenced to 10 years in San Quentin, though he only served six. He even managed to escape once, but was captured after his disguise, a false beard, fell off. Despite his violent actions, the Vulcanite Company realized that sending more agents after rebellious dentists was too risky. As a result, they allowed the patent to expire, giving dentists back the freedom to use vulcanite, all thanks to Samuel Chalfant and his deadly tendencies.
1. ‘There Is A Light That Never Goes Out’
If you ever find yourself in Livermore, California, make sure to swing by Fire Station #6. What makes this garage a must-see attraction? Well, it’s all because of the lightbulb. This particular bulb has been glowing since 1901.
In “There Is a Light That Never Goes Out,” writer Jon Mooallem illuminates the story of the so-called Centennial Lightbulb, a remarkable piece of glass created by Adolphe Chaillet. Chaillet, a businessman and inventor, journeyed across the United States, showcasing his high-quality lightbulbs to potential buyers.
Somehow, one of his bulbs found its way to a Livermore shopkeeper, who generously donated it to the local fire station. This was quite an important event in 1901, as it enabled firefighters to move swiftly during nighttime emergencies. When the station moved to a new building five years later, they made sure to bring the prized lightbulb with them.
More than 113 years later, the bulb is still shining bright. Yes, there have been a few occasions where it’s gone dark due to power outages or when it was relocated from one station to another. But the bulb itself remains in remarkable condition.
The secret behind its longevity remains a mystery. Some suggest that the bulb’s use of carbon filaments instead of tungsten, and the fact that the filaments are eight times thicker than usual, might be key. Even so, this doesn’t fully explain its enduring brightness. Whatever the reason, the Centennial Lightbulb has continued to burn brightly through every major global event over the past century, proving that they truly don’t make ’em like they used to.
