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Books rank among the most extraordinary achievements of humankind. Simple marks on paper can convey ideas, insights, and emotions across vast distances and generations, enabling readers to connect deeply with the thoughts and feelings of the author.
This is true, of course, only if they endure. Sadly, books are delicate, and the world can be unforgiving. Here are 10 notable examples of significant literary works that have been lost to history.
10. Inventio Fortunata - Arctic Chronicles
During the mid-14th century, an unnamed monk embarked on a daring and groundbreaking expedition. Departing from Oxford, England, he ventured to the Arctic Circle, becoming one of the earliest Europeans to record his observations of the region. His journey culminated in the creation of Inventio Fortunata (“The Discovery of the Fortunate Islands”), which he presented to King Edward III in the 1360s.
While it is thought that at least six copies of the book were produced, all eventually vanished into historical obscurity. What remains is a verbal account passed on to Jacobus Cnoyen by another monk. Cnoyen, a Flemish writer, transcribed this summary and included it in his 1364 work, Itinerarium.
Before Itinerarium also disappeared, the famous 16th-century mapmaker Gerardus Mercator obtained a copy. He used it as a reference for his 1569 atlas, which featured a direct quote supposedly describing the North Pole:
At the center of the four lands lies a Whirlpool, into which the four Indrawing Seas that divide the North flow. The water swirls around and plunges into the Earth as if poured through a funnel. It spans four degrees on each side of the Pole, totaling eight degrees. Directly beneath the Pole, a bare Rock rises from the Sea, encircled by nearly 33 French miles of magnetic Stone.
Today, we know the North Pole bears no resemblance to this description. This raises questions: Did the original seafaring monk truly exist, and did he reach the North Pole? If so, were his writings accurately relayed by the second monk to Jacobus Cnoyen, or were they distorted before reaching Mercator?
Without access to the original manuscript, the complete narrative will likely remain a mystery forever.
9. Homer’s Margites - The Pioneer of Influential Comedy
There’s an undeniable charm in the antics of a clumsy fool who stumbles through life. From classic duos like Laurel and Hardy to the quintessential sitcom dad, such characters never fail to entertain. Perhaps it’s their relatable mishaps, the way they make us feel superior, or even the legacy of Homer’s lost work, Margites, that keeps us laughing.
Homer (the ancient Greek poet, not the cartoon character) is best known for his epic poems, the Iliad and the Odyssey. These masterpieces have profoundly shaped literature worldwide and remain subjects of study millennia later. One can only speculate on the impact Homer’s comedic work, Margites, might have had if it had survived.
Margites, Homer’s earliest poem, dates back to around 700 BC. While the exact adventures of its protagonist remain unclear, Plato offers a glimpse into his personality, describing him as someone who “knew many things, but all poorly.” Additionally, Margites was so clueless that he couldn’t determine whether men or women bore children and feared sleeping with his wife, worried she might gossip about his inadequacies to his mother.
Aristotle credited Homer with pioneering a new era of comedy, asserting that Margites had the same impact on comedic works as the Iliad and the Odyssey had on tragedies. Although fragments of the poem survive, including the infamous “overly-large-penis-stuck-in-the-toilet” joke, the majority of this groundbreaking work has been lost to time.
8. Cardenio - Shakespeare’s Lost Play
In the early 17th century, a novel concept—literally—began captivating Europe: the novel. Among the first of its kind was Don Quixote, which quickly gained widespread popularity.
First released in Spanish in 1605, the story centered on a man named Cardenio, who, inspired by tales of chivalric heroes, embarked on a quest to become a knight himself. The novel was a blend of humor, adventure, and tragedy, and it is often regarded as Spain’s most significant contribution to literature.
When the English translation of Don Quixote hit bookstores in 1612, Shakespeare was quick to acquire a copy and began crafting a new play titled Cardenio. Whether his intention was to pay homage to this groundbreaking work or simply to capitalize on its popularity remains uncertain, as Shakespeare’s Cardenio vanished almost as soon as it was created.
Little evidence survives to confirm the existence of Cardenio. Records from the Treasurer of the King’s Chamber mention payments for Cardenna and Cardenno, likely misspellings of Cardenio. Additionally, copyright documents from 1653 indicate that the play was owned by Humphrey Moseley, but this is the last concrete trace of its existence.
In 1727, Lewis Theobald released Double Falsehood, asserting that he had merged three early manuscripts of Cardenio into a single play. Today, scholar Gary Taylor has dedicated nearly three decades to analyzing Double Falsehood, meticulously distinguishing between passages written by Shakespeare and his collaborator John Fletcher and those added by Theobald.
While some experts argue that certain sections can be attributed to Shakespeare, accepting that Theobald possessed three original copies of a lost Shakespearean play requires considerable skepticism. The extent to which any part of Cardenio survives remains a mystery we may never fully unravel.
7. Jekyll & Hyde - The Original Draft
The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde stands as one of the most iconic horror tales ever penned. The narrative delves into the internal struggle between good and evil within humans, as well as the tension between their conscious and subconscious desires.
The book’s profound impact on Western literature and culture is evident in the widespread use of the phrase “Jekyll and Hyde.” However, had Fanny Stevenson not been such a stringent critic, her husband Robert Louis Stevenson might never have achieved such fame.
Letters unearthed in 2000 between Fanny and family friend W.E. Henley revealed her harsh critique of the draft. She dismissed it as “utter nonsense,” criticizing its lack of purpose and message. Fanny proposed that the transformation should symbolize the duality of human nature, a theme that ultimately became the cornerstone of the book’s enduring legacy.
The concept for the story struck Stevenson during a cocaine-fueled nightmare. Frustrated that Fanny interrupted his troubled sleep, Robert channeled his irritation into writing a 30,000-word draft in just three days.
This was the draft Fanny mentioned in her letter, concluding with, “He claimed it was his finest work. I will burn it after showing it to you.”
True to her word, Fanny destroyed the manuscript, much to Robert’s dismay. Determined, he rewrote the story, incorporating his wife’s critiques. The revised version became a massive success, rescuing the family from financial hardship.
While the reworked book is widely available today, the original, flawed draft has been lost to history forever.
6. World War I Novel - Ernest Hemingway
In December 1922, Hadley Hemingway was preparing to leave Paris to reunite with her husband, Ernest, in Switzerland. Ernest, then working as a foreign correspondent for the Toronto Star, had just covered the Peace Conference in Geneva and was scheduled to travel to Chamby.
The couple planned to meet with Lincoln Steffens, an American journalist and writer they had recently befriended. Being a thoughtful and proactive wife, Hadley packed several of Ernest’s incomplete manuscripts to share with Steffens before setting off.
At Gare de Lyon, after boarding the train, Hadley stepped away briefly to purchase a bottle of water. Upon her return, the bag containing the manuscripts had vanished.
The train ride that followed was undoubtedly one of the most agonizing in history. When Hadley arrived, she had to break the news to Ernest. He later recounted the moment, comparing her distress to that of someone who had lost a loved one or endured immense suffering. As she struggled to explain, he reassured her that nothing could be as devastating as she feared.
Upon hearing the news, Ernest was understandably distraught. He arranged for someone to take over his duties in Geneva and rushed back to Paris. In those days, writers used carbon paper between sheets to create duplicate copies as they wrote, similar to how police tickets are produced.
These carbon copies served as a writer’s safety net, often stored in fireproof containers in separate locations. Unfortunately, Hadley had packed these duplicates along with the originals.
The loss of these works left a lasting impact on Ernest, one he never fully overcame. Instead of attempting to recreate the lost manuscripts, he shifted his focus to new projects. Five years later, Ernest and Hadley divorced.
Ernest Hemingway once cryptically mentioned that he remembered his actions the night he discovered the manuscripts were gone, though he never disclosed what those actions were.
5. Double Exposure - Sylvia Plath
Sylvia Plath stands as one of the most impactful writers of the 20th century. While primarily known for her poetry, she gained widespread recognition for her semi-autobiographical novel, The Bell Jar.
Despite its success, Plath was not particularly fond of the book, calling it “a pot boiler, really.” However, she held a different opinion of her unfinished novel, Double Exposure, which she described as “hellishly funny.”
Plath began working on Double Exposure, also referred to as DoubleTake or The Interminable Loaf, in 1962. Tragically, she took her own life on February 11, 1963, leaving behind 130 pages of the incomplete manuscript. The events that followed remain a topic of speculation.
According to those familiar with the outline, the novel was also semi-autobiographical. It centered on a woman who discovers her husband’s infidelity, mirroring Plath’s own experiences. She had separated from her husband not long before her death.
Ted Hughes, Plath’s estranged husband, admitted to destroying one of her journals to shield their children. However, he made no such claims about this novel. He mentioned hearing vague rumors about an unfinished work but believed Plath’s mother had taken it.
The truth remains uncertain, but there is hope that the manuscript might resurface in the future.
4. On Sphere-Making - Archimedes
Recall the Antikythera mechanism? This ancient device, discovered in a shipwreck, was remarkably advanced for its time, accurately predicting the movements of celestial bodies.
The mechanism was so advanced that its construction remains a mystery even today. This is partly due to the loss of what is considered one of Archimedes’ most practical works.
Archimedes died in Syracuse in 212 BC during the Roman invasion and subsequent plunder of the city. A century later, Cicero documented two spheres crafted by Archimedes: one depicting the stars and the other illustrating the movements of the planets, Sun, and Moon as observed from Earth.
These devices were remarkably sophisticated and precise. Their designs were likely detailed alongside those of the Antikythera mechanism in a manuscript titled On Sphere-Making. In this work, Archimedes outlined his theories, formulas, and blueprints for creating such intricate machinery.
Sadly, the manuscript was lost during the invasion of Syracuse. It may have been stolen, burned by the invaders, or even hidden or destroyed by Archimedes himself, who famously spent his final moments asking his killer not to disturb him as he drew circles in the sand.
Regardless of its fate, the potential impact of this lost work is immense, as modern scholars still grapple with understanding how the ancient Greeks engineered such complex devices.
3. Lost Mexican Codices
Although the Aztec and Mayan civilizations left behind impressive ruins, much about their lives, identities, and decline remains unknown. While time has obscured some details, the greatest mysteries arise from the destruction of their codices.
The Aztec and Mayan codices, collectively referred to as the Mexican codices, were illustrated manuscripts that recorded the history, culture, and daily life of these civilizations. Today, fewer than 30 of these codices remain, and they have been crucial in deciphering their language and traditions.
Many of these codices were burned under the orders of Itzcoatl, an Aztec leader who orchestrated a coup to seize power. Upon his rise, Itzcoatl commanded the destruction of the codices to rewrite history in his favor.
When the Spanish arrived just over a century later, they nearly obliterated all the Mayan codices. Diego de Landa had aggressively tried to impose Spanish culture on the natives but lacked the authority to do so. Consequently, he was compelled to return to Spain and document his findings about their history and culture.
His writings were also lost, but not before other authors had copied portions of them. This leaves us with a fragmented, third-hand account of the destroyed codices.
2. Nikolai Gogol
Nikolai Gogol is regarded as one of the earliest and most significant figures in the Golden Age of Russian literature. Born in what is now Ukraine, Gogol was a hypochondriac plagued by paranoia and a fear of death, often falling ill. His most notable works were created during periods of good health, while he became nearly inactive during his bouts of illness.
His renowned work, Dead Souls, drew inspiration from Dante’s Inferno and sought to reflect Russian moral values. Upon publication, Dead Souls sparked significant controversy due to its provocative and graphic content.
The religious community harshly criticized Gogol, who took these attacks to heart and sought reconciliation. This led him to associate with Father Matvey Konstantinovsky, a religious figure who persuaded Gogol that his writings were sinful.
Konstantinovsky urged Gogol to abandon his work and destroy any remaining manuscripts. Believing his illnesses were a result of his immoral actions, Gogol obeyed and burned the nearly completed second part of Dead Souls. He immediately regretted this act and sank into severe depression. After refusing food for nine days, Gogol passed away.
1. The Yongle Encyclopedia - Ming Dynasty
Long before Europe discovered paper, the Chinese were already prolific writers. Between the 11th and 14th centuries, they guarded the secret of gunpowder. Similarly, about 700 years before Gutenberg’s printing press, China had a flourishing printing industry.
Ancient Chinese knowledge was both invaluable and far ahead of Europe’s advancements. This prompted Emperor Yongle to commission the Yongle Encyclopedia in 1403. This monumental work aimed to compile over 8,000 Chinese texts, covering fields like medicine, science, culture, and music, into a single repository of knowledge.
The complete collection consisted of nearly 23,000 scrolls spread across 11,095 volumes. Storing it required 40 cubic meters (1,400 ft) of space, and the index alone spanned 60 volumes. Upon completion in the early 1400s, the encyclopedia was housed in the Forbidden City.
After narrowly escaping destruction in 1557, a second copy was made. Fortunately, about 400 volumes of this duplicate survive to this day.
The remaining volumes of both the original and the copy have been lost over time. Many experts believe they were destroyed during the fall of the Ming dynasty, though some speculate they might be sealed in Emperor Jiajing’s tomb.
Of the Ming dynasty tombs, only three are accessible to the public, and Jiajing’s is not among them. His burial site is unlikely to be explored anytime soon. While the answers to countless questions may lie just beyond our grasp, it’s improbable they will be uncovered in our lifetime.
