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The Inca Empire flourished across the Andean region of South America for centuries, beginning its rise around the 13th century. It became widely recognized by neighboring civilizations and eventually by European explorers who ventured into South America and the New World. With their highly advanced society, the Incas impressed those they encountered. At the height of their reign through the 1300s, 1400s, and into the 1500s, their vast empire included territories that now make up modern-day Peru, Chile, Bolivia, and Ecuador. They were masters at harnessing the land and its resources to their advantage.
While it’s easy to assume that all ancient innovations came from Europe, the Middle East, or the Far East, the Incas disproved this notion. From revolutionary societal structures to incredible engineering feats, the Incas dominated South America for centuries. Experts at thriving in high-altitude environments during their empire’s peak, they left behind a legacy of innovations. Let’s explore ten of these remarkable advancements and the lasting impact they continue to have on modern society.
10. The Great Inca Road System
In the United States, life changed dramatically after World War II with the construction of the interstate highway system. It became easier than ever for people to travel long distances by car, connecting different parts of the country in unprecedented ways and boosting commerce, communication, and more. However, this U.S. highway system was far from the first of its kind—it was simply the first one after Henry Ford's invention of the automobile.
Long before the advent of the American interstate system, the Incas created what is now known as the Great Inca Road. Also referred to as Qhapaq Ñan, meaning the Road of the Inka, this impressive network spanned nearly 25,000 miles (40,233 kilometers) of carefully constructed roads that linked every corner of the Inca Empire.
This expansive road system enabled Inca rulers to easily dispatch officials to oversee and manage distant regions of the empire. It significantly facilitated commerce, as it provided a relatively level and dependable route for transporting goods between cities. The road also ensured that communication could flow across regions, even through rugged mountains and otherwise harsh terrain.
To this day, historians, archaeologists, and engineers continue to be in awe of this remarkable achievement. Considering the limited tools and immense workforce that would have been necessary to construct thousands of miles of roads, the Incas pulled off a monumental feat. The road’s functionality undoubtedly played a crucial role in sustaining the empire for as long as it did.
9. The Magnificent Machu Picchu
Machu Picchu is undoubtedly one of the most iconic remnants of the Inca Empire, perched high in the Andes Mountains. Built in the 15th century, it was designed as a royal retreat for Incan emperors. While it may not remain exactly as it once was, it is now a globally renowned archaeological site that attracts thousands of visitors annually. However, the true marvel of Machu Picchu lies in its 15th-century advancements in architecture, engineering, and drainage, which continue to captivate the world.
Machu Picchu is located in an area that receives, on average, 80 inches (203 cm) of rainfall annually. Due to its high altitude, steep slopes, and frequent landslides, the construction and drainage in the region posed significant challenges. However, the Incas devised an ingenious solution to efficiently drain all this water from the area, accomplishing this feat centuries before civil engineering became established in other parts of the world. They built a series of stone walls to direct the water through specific pathways, guiding it away from the citadel and down the mountainside.
The water was then channeled into a canal that extended several thousand feet, eventually reaching a pond. This pond collected the constant rainwater, preventing it from causing landslides across the hillside where people lived, worked, and gathered. More importantly, it ensured a steady and reliable freshwater source, providing drinking water for the Incas. The fact that these structures remain intact, even after hundreds of years of abandonment, showcases the durability of Incan engineering and innovation.
8. The Quipu System
The Incan Empire developed a unique, intricate, and efficient system to record information and communicate across their vast territory. Known as “quipu,” this method remains somewhat mysterious to this day. Quipus consisted of knotted cords of various colors, arranged in specific patterns. Each knot and color combination conveyed information that could be read and interpreted by the “reader” of the message.
These knotted cords could be sent to distant locations, where recipients could decipher the message by understanding the order of the knots. Think of it as a form of coded communication, similar to smoke signals or sign language, but utilizing colored cords to transmit information. It’s believed that quipus were primarily used for administrative purposes, including accounting, logistical management, and possibly even military strategies.
As previously mentioned, historians have yet to crack the code of what each color in the quipu system represented. It seems likely that the secrets of these knotted cords will remain forever tied to the ancient Inca civilization, never to be uncovered by the outside world. In this sense, the quipu did exactly what it was designed to do—keep its messages hidden from non-Incan eyes!
7. Terracing the Hillsides
The Incas, living atop high mountain plateaus, had to get inventive when it came to farming and food production. Unlike other civilizations with vast, fertile plains, they didn’t have the luxury of easily accessible flat land. They also didn’t have jungles, forests, or oceans to hunt in for a consistent food supply. So, they had to make do with the land they had: steep hills, rocky cliffs, and rugged steppes. Their ingenious solution was terraced agriculture, which allowed them to thrive in these harsh conditions.
While the use of terracing wasn’t unique to the Incas in the ancient world, the Inca Empire had no knowledge of the agricultural practices in Asia or other far-off regions. Therefore, the decision to terrace their hilly lands was a pioneering move for their region, one that showcased their ingenuity.
The Incas built stepped platforms using stones and other materials, creating flat surfaces along the hillsides. These small, parcel-sized flatlands were the key to their success. The end result was an effective system for farming in otherwise unyielding terrain. Through this innovative technique, the Incas were able to sustain their civilization for centuries.
6. Stonework Wonders
The Incas were exceptional stone masons, showcasing their craft not only in terraced farming but across their entire empire. They carefully carved and arranged large stones to create stable, flat surfaces that supported their agricultural terraces. But their stonework extended far beyond that. The fine craftsmanship and engineering that went into shaping and fitting massive stones together is nothing short of astonishing, especially considering the Incas didn’t have modern tools to move and position these enormous rocks.
Despite lacking advanced technology, the Incas developed a method for fitting enormous stone blocks together using mortar. This technique allowed their stone structures to endure for centuries. Remarkably, many of these structures still stand—or at least partially stand—today.
Given the vast amount of time that has passed since these structures were built, their survival is truly remarkable. The enduring walls of Sacsayhuamán, for instance, continue to awe visitors, who marvel at how ancient builders could have possibly assembled these massive stones, each weighing hundreds of tons. Yet, the Incas did it—and built it to last.
5. Mastery of Suspension Bridges
Due to the Incan empire's high placement in the Andes, traveling long distances presented a significant challenge. Unlike regions with flatter terrain, where people could travel great distances on foot over time, the jagged Andes were difficult to navigate. Rather than accepting the slow and arduous process of trekking up and down steep hills, the Incas used their ingenuity to design advanced suspension bridges.
While modern suspension bridges are a common sight, the Inca designs from centuries ago were both intricate and impressively strong. These bridges, called “Q’eswachaka,” were constructed using tightly interwoven grass and fibers. The strength of these materials allowed the bridges to support considerable weight, making regular crossings possible.
Similar to the Great Inca Road, these bridges played a crucial role in linking mountain communities that would otherwise have remained isolated on their high hills. The bridges facilitated trade, enhanced transportation, and streamlined logistics, ensuring that the empire operated more efficiently.
4. Skilled Weavers
The Incas were expert weavers. Their weaving abilities went beyond the construction of their suspension bridges, extending to the creation of textiles using innovative techniques that were advanced for their time. With access to materials such as alpaca and vicuña wool, they crafted durable clothing, shawls, blankets, and various domestic items that were built to endure for generations.
Through their exceptional weaving abilities, the Incas were able to craft a wide variety of textiles that protected them from the cold temperatures found at high altitudes. These creations were also useful in facilitating trade with neighboring societies, providing goods that were scarce in the mountainous environment of the Inca empire. Incan weaving was not only a practical skill but also a cultural achievement, with its impact still acknowledged today as one of the pinnacle moments in the history of textile arts and craftsmanship.
3. The Inca Runners
The Incas built a sophisticated system of roads and suspension bridges that helped create a highly interconnected society. But to make this network truly effective, they relied on an unexpected solution: not motorized vehicles, but human-powered runners known as chasquis. These runners were young men who were specifically trained to cover vast distances, connecting remote Incan communities and ensuring the smooth flow of messages and goods across their empire.
Chasquis were tasked with carrying messages across the empire, running down the Great Inca Road, crossing suspension bridges, and navigating the difficult mountain terrain. When they reached their limit, they would pass the message to another chasqui, who would continue the journey at full speed, ensuring the message or goods reached their destination in the shortest time possible.
Archaeologists believe that these chasquis covered incredible distances, sometimes running dozens of miles a day, carrying everything from messages to small goods like fish. Their fast pace and endurance helped keep the Incan empire more connected than most ancient civilizations, showcasing the remarkable physical capabilities of these runners.
2. A Powerful and Motivated Military
At the height of their dominance in South America, the Incas had a formidable and fiercely motivated military force known as the Sapa Inca’s army, named after their supreme ruler, the Sapa Inca. As the empire expanded, the military grew stronger, and with it came an ever-expanding territory, new communities, and a powerful fighting force ready to defend their lands. Armed and expertly trained, the Incan soldiers were prepared to ward off any threats to the empire.
However, the significance of the Sapa Inca’s army went beyond mere defense. The military also played a vital role in advancing the empire’s economic and infrastructural growth. The Sapa Inca understood the need for large-scale public works such as the Great Inca Road and the system of suspension bridges, and so he tasked his military with contributing to these monumental projects.
This manpower was essential to the success of these developments, as the sheer scale of the public works required an immense workforce. Without the power and influence of their military, the Incas would not have been able to complete as many transformative projects that continue to be admired today.
1. Astrological Expertise
The Incas viewed the universe as an interconnected web, where the sun and moon were revered as deities, much like in many other cultures. However, their belief system went beyond mere spirituality; they developed a surprisingly accurate system of timekeeping using the stars, planets, and the moon. The Incas were able to pinpoint specific constellations, categorize them as light or dark, and track their movements across the sky with precision throughout the year. They also understood that the sky provided vital information for agricultural practices, such as when to plant and harvest crops.
The Incas constructed buildings in carefully chosen locations, designed to align with the sun's angle at certain times of the year. These architectural placements allowed them to determine key moments in the agricultural calendar—when to start planting, when to halt planting, and when to harvest or store crops for the winter. The gradual, predictable movement of the sun's rays across the mountain peaks around their settlements acted as natural indicators for these decisions.
In particular, when the sun passed through two specific mountain peaks in a certain way and illuminated a designated point, the Incas knew it was time for a particular agricultural task, such as planting or harvesting. Although they lacked our modern calendars or clocks, their observations of natural signs allowed them to track time with impressive accuracy.
