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The Roman military, famed for its unstoppable power, remains a source of fascination. Its remarkable organization and discipline allowed a small city on the Italian peninsula to dominate a vast portion of the Western world, stretching from the British Isles to the Near East, and from the Rhine to North Africa. This list highlights key facts about the Roman army, shedding light on both its victories and shortcomings.
10. The Role of Seasons in Warfare
In the early days of Rome, the logistics of warfare were so challenging that the Romans fought only between sowing and harvest seasons (during the summer). Rome's economy was agricultural, making troop movements in the winter particularly taxing.
As recorded by Livy in his 'History of Rome' (5.6), if a war wasn't concluded by the end of summer, 'our soldiers must wait through the winter.' He also noted an interesting way many soldiers spent their time during the long wait: 'The pleasure of hunting carries men off through snow and frost to the mountains and the woods.'
The first known instance of Romans continuing a war into winter occurred in 396 BC, during the siege of the Etruscan city of Veii.
9. Decimation
Mutiny was always a risk for Roman generals, and several measures were implemented to prevent it. Among these, decimation (decimatio) stood out as one of the most feared and effective methods.
This punishment involved selecting every 10th man from the rebellious unit and executing them by beating or stoning. The victims were chosen by lot, with their fellow soldiers making the selection. The sheer terror of decimation often led mutiny conspirators to reconsider, as they risked being betrayed by their own comrades.
The Romans recognized that decimation, though effective, was deeply unfair, as many of the executed soldiers may not have been involved in the mutiny. Despite its injustice, it was considered a necessary evil. As Tacitus wrote in 'Annals' (14.44), 'Setting an example on a large scale always involves a degree of injustice when individuals suffer to ensure the public good.' (McKeown 2010: 40-41)
8. Property Requirement
Roman military service was considered both an obligation and an honor for citizens. In the early days, the army consisted solely of Roman citizens, with their social rank determining their military role. The wealthiest served in the cavalry, those with less wealth in the infantry, while the poor, without property, were excluded from service.
After the Second Punic War (218–201 BC), this recruitment system became outdated. With Rome engaged in larger and prolonged wars, a permanent military presence was required in newly acquired territories, prompting a relaxation of the property qualifications.
By the second century BC, the property requirements were further diminished. In 107 BC, Gaius Marius reformed the army by allowing volunteers without property to enlist, with the government providing them the necessary equipment. (Hornblower and Spawforth 2014: 79)
7. Siege Tactics
When a town or fortification was under siege, a specialized army unit would be dispatched to encircle the area, cutting off any escape routes. A fortified camp would be established nearby, preferably on elevated ground and always beyond the reach of enemy projectiles. Another unit would then move in to breach the defensive walls, while being shielded by archers, bolt-firers, and catapults providing covering fire.
The catapult was one of the most fearsome weapons used in siege warfare. Josephus (The Jewish Wars, 3.7.23) recounts the terrifying power of the catapult: 'A soldier standing on the wall near Josephus was struck by it [a stone thrown by a catapult]. His head was torn off by the stone missile, and the upper part of his skull was hurled [550 meters (1,800 ft)].'
6. Tunneling
Tunneling played a crucial role in Roman siege warfare. The outcome of many sieges was determined by the Romans' ability to breach fortifications through underground passages, allowing them to infiltrate and attack the enemy from below.
This strategy, though effective at first, became predictable over time. During the conflict with Mithridates of Pontus in the early first century BC, Roman forces attempted to dig a tunnel to break through the walls of Themiscyra. The defenders responded by releasing wild animals, such as bears and bees, into the tunnel to thwart the Romans' efforts.
The earliest known evidence of chemical warfare dates back to the third century AD, discovered at Dura Europus in Syria. There, archaeologists uncovered remnants of an underground battle between the Romans and Sassanian Persians, where the latter had laid siege to a Roman garrison and used tunnels to infiltrate.
In retaliation, the Romans also dug their own tunnels to counter the Persian threat. The discovery of skeletons and weaponry in these tunnels revealed that the Roman soldiers perished from suffocation, caused by a poisonous gas cloud formed from bitumen and sulfur crystals set ablaze by the Persian forces.
5. Helmet Function
Some ancient writers suggest that Roman helmets offered more than just physical protection. Polybius (Histories, 6.23) observed that the decorations atop the helmets were meant to psychologically affect their adversaries, giving Roman soldiers an imposing and taller appearance.
The tactic of decorating helmets to instill fear in opponents was common among various cultures. In this context, Polybius specifically mentions the use of a “circle of feathers” that made Roman soldiers appear significantly taller than they actually were. This would have been particularly effective against enemies, like the Gauls and Germans, who were notably taller and more physically imposing than the Romans.
4. Decision-Making Process
In the Roman Republic, only the Senate, which represented the will of the citizens, had the authority to declare war. However, as Rome expanded and its generals gained more power, some military leaders declared wars without the Senate’s approval.
A notable example of this occurred in 89 BC when the consul and general Manius Aquillius declared war against Mithridates of Pontus without Senate involvement. Although this act was technically illegal, the Senate had little power to stop it due to the immense influence of certain generals. Once Rome transitioned into an empire, the emperor alone took on the responsibility of declaring war.
3. Donatives
The Praetorian Guard was a special unit of the Roman army tasked with protecting the emperor, acting as both his personal bodyguards and household troops. During the first century BC, their involvement in the selection of new emperors was occasional.
Over time, however, their role expanded, and they eventually gained the power to appoint, depose, and even assassinate emperors. One driving factor behind these actions was the practice of the 'donative,' an economic reward granted by a newly appointed emperor after the assassination of the previous one.
This system contributed to the chaotic nature of imperial succession, particularly in the later years of the Western Roman Empire. Originally the loyal protectors of the emperor, the Praetorian Guard became increasingly corrupt and dangerous, holding significant sway over the fate of the emperors.
2. Gladius Hispaniensis
The primary short sword employed by the Roman army was the gladius hispaniensis ('Spanish sword'), which originated in the Iberian Peninsula. Its deadly effectiveness and practicality were well known throughout history.
As recorded by Livy in the History of Rome (31.34), during the Macedonian War (200–196 BC), the Macedonians were stunned by the power of the Roman sword:
The Macedonians [ . . ] had [so far] only seen wounds inflicted by spears and arrows. When they saw the bodies dismembered by the Romans’ Spanish swords, and arms sliced off at the shoulder, and heads separated from the trunk, neck and all, and entrails exposed, [ . . ] they trembled as they realized what weapons and what soldiers they would have to face.
1. The Fetials
Rome had a dedicated group of priests known as the fetials, whose exclusive responsibility was to carry out the rituals for declaring war and establishing treaties. The final part of the declaration of war ritual involved throwing a spear into the enemy's land.
By the early third century BC, as Rome's territory had expanded to nearly cover the entire Italian peninsula, from the Po Valley to the South, the practice of throwing a spear into enemy land became less feasible. The borders of Rome were now too distant for the fetials to carry out the ritual properly.
However, superstitions die hard, and the priests devised a smart workaround. A piece of land near the Temple of Bellona (the goddess of war) was designated as non-Roman. During the war against King Pyrrhus of Epirus (280–275 BC), a captured enemy soldier was forced to purchase part of this land to allow the spear to be thrown into it.
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