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Through intellect and the ability to manipulate our surroundings, humans have achieved far more than any other species. We can now cultivate artificial tissues and employ lasers in medical procedures. Yet, many of these revolutionary advances are known only to a select few, leaving the everyday lives of many unchanged. Compiling a truly comprehensive list is challenging, but here are ten breakthroughs that have had a profound impact on nearly everyone on the planet. Each one is significant in its own right, and although listed in chronological order, their importance is subjective, as some occurred concurrently or lack precise dates. This order is only an approximation, with several breakthroughs more accurately categorized by their themes.
10. The Dawn of Logical Reasoning Millions of years ago
Logical reasoning, also known as scientific thinking, involves analyzing and testing to uncover the truth in any given situation, so that it can be applied more broadly. For instance, observing that consuming a specific berry consistently results in illness and death leads to the reasonable conclusion that the berry is poisonous. On the other hand, noticing that rain follows eating a certain fruit should not lead to the assumption that eating fruit causes rain, as this observation has not been verified or repeated. Many animals are capable of making such connections without testing them rigorously. Superstitions often arise from these illogical associations, where a rare or coincidental event is mistakenly seen as a cause-and-effect relationship. Ancient civilizations even had priest-kings who interpreted signs through increasingly complex superstitions, sometimes leading to destructive behaviors. The ability to think logically enabled humans to establish important connections, resulting in transformative consequences across all areas of life. Every advancement we’ve made is due to our ability to reason logically and uncover links, helping us build a better world.
9. The Invention of Stone Tools 2.6 million years ago
While apes and many other creatures have been crafting tools for millions of years, few have ventured to reshape stones. Tools made from organic materials like wood and leaves deteriorate or wear out quickly, but stone tools are far more durable, allowing for gradual refinement over time. After a hunt, a spearhead can be retrieved, honed, and made more efficient for future use. This improvement in toolmaking led to significantly more successful hunts. The process of crafting stone tools demanded a higher level of intellect and creativity, distinguishing humans from most animals. Those with greater intelligence created better tools, lived better lives, and generally had longer lifespans, which in turn allowed them to produce more offspring. In perfecting stone tools, we also shaped our own evolutionary path.
8. The Discovery of Fire 1 million years ago
While there are accounts of chimpanzees, our closest relatives, performing ritualistic fire dances and even wielding burning branches, humans are the only known species to have mastered the art of creating fire. Fire offers warmth and comfort, but more importantly, it enabled us to cook meat. Our ancestors discovered that cooked meat was not only easier and safer to consume but also more nutritious. As a result, they quickly adapted to a diet richer in meat. This dietary shift led to a reduction in their strong plant-crushing jaws and a significant increase in brain size, as hunting for game required greater intellect, planning, and communication. Fire transformed our diets, which in turn altered our digestive systems, jaws, and teeth, playing a crucial role in the development of near-modern intelligence. While stone tools may have been an initial step toward larger brains, fire dramatically accelerated the process. Within a short time of mastering fire, the brain size of our ancestors more than doubled.
7. The Rise of Domestication 10,000 years ago
Rather than continuing a nomadic existence following migrating herds, some early human groups discovered they could keep less aggressive animals confined to a specific area, sparing them the need to constantly move. This led to the establishment of permanent settlements, granting people more free time as they no longer had to travel frequently. The development of written language became more vital for managing resources, and the extra time allowed it to flourish. Domestication extended to plants, and the beginnings of agriculture emerged. Breeding became a regulated process, while skills like weaving were refined, and trade expanded. No longer confined to a few generalist roles in a hunter-gatherer society, people now specialized in countless professions, from metalworkers and breeders to early veterinarians. The population, once only a few million, began to grow toward the billions. Farming also had an internal effect: the large quantities of food produced created a rise in disease-carrying pests, which in turn prompted the development of stronger immune systems.
6. The Invention of the Wheel 6,000 years ago
Around 6,000 years ago, the wheel began to see widespread use across different regions of the world. Initially, its adoption was slow, as the lack of smooth roads hindered its effectiveness. Over time, however, the wheel gained traction, and communities began to flatten paths to accommodate wagons, greatly enhancing the efficiency of various human activities. The wheel eventually led to the creation of innovations such as the water wheel and the windmill, which provided power and significantly reduced the effort required in farming and food production. Vehicles and chariots also evolved, impacting empires' strategies in warfare and travel. Other inventions that arose from the wheel include the spinning wheel, which enabled the production of refined textiles; the potter's wheel, used to create higher-quality pottery; cogs and pulleys, which spurred the development of mechanical systems; the astrolabe, which was utilized by scholars to study the cosmos; the propeller, which later powered airplanes and boats; and the steam engine, another groundbreaking invention discussed later.
5. The Emergence of Mathematics 20,000 years ago
Mathematics began slowly, but it became increasingly essential as agriculture developed. The need to manage trade goods and track larger numbers of livestock required counting and manipulating numbers. As farming expanded, people not only needed to count into the hundreds and thousands, but also to be able to add and subtract those figures. Mathematics enabled more complex trading practices, replacing the previous reliance on haggling, and introduced the concept of currency. This shift revolutionized commerce and laid the groundwork for economics. It also allowed fields such as engineering and astronomy to emerge as distinct disciplines, forming the foundation of modern science and technology. The introduction of Arabic numerals and the place-value system made advanced mathematics accessible to all, which previously required years of university study just to understand basic operations like multiplication.
4. The Art of Metalworking 10,000 years ago
Gold was likely the first metal to be used extensively by humans. Its natural occurrence in relatively pure form and its softness made it easy to work with using basic stone tools. Over time, ancient people discovered that heat from fire could extract other metals in relatively pure forms from ores, which are rocks containing metal. Copper and tin were among the first metals to be worked, valued for their hardness, yet still too soft for many purposes until, by what was probably an accident, they were combined to create bronze. This alloy, much harder and more durable, revolutionized weaponry, tools, and various other implements. The rise of bronze marked a massive leap forward in civilization, with tools, chariots, armor, and scientific instruments becoming vastly improved. Iron took longer to master due to its higher melting point, but once it was, it proved to be an even stronger material. Iron that had been exposed to organic material became steel, an alloy known for its resistance to rust and ease of welding. Today, steel is mass-produced at low cost and used extensively around the globe.
3. The Birth of Vaccination 1724
Although many ancient civilizations made use of it, vaccination became truly understood in the 18th century, with its widespread use occurring only in the 20th century. Most notably, smallpox, a devastating disease, has been entirely eradicated through vaccination. Smallpox was deadly, claiming the lives of nearly 50% of infected adults and over 80% of infected children. It caused millions of deaths annually for centuries. A vaccine, initially derived from the less severe cowpox, was developed to create immunity, and by 1977, once enough people were vaccinated, the disease had no remaining hosts to infect and was eradicated. Numerous other deadly diseases that once plagued humanity are now preventable thanks to early-life vaccinations. Even those not vaccinated benefit as the disease is less likely to spread when enough others are vaccinated. Billions of lives have been saved, and the entire human population has benefitted from vaccination.
2. Printing Press 1440
While paper and writing served as useful tools for recording important information, books had to be laboriously written by hand, making them scarce and reserved for the most significant topics. The invention of the printing press revolutionized this process, enabling entire books to be printed in minutes, thereby making knowledge more accessible and allowing books to cover a wider variety of subjects. The total volume and diversity of knowledge that humanity could store grew exponentially, and the wider availability of books and information led to an improvement in education, which became more widely accessible. The concept that all children should receive formal education is now almost universally accepted. This milestone significantly contributed to the intellectual advancement of the general public.
1. Paper 100BC
The widespread availability of paper played a crucial role in the movement toward universal literacy. Prior to the ease of paper production, people were typically limited to writing in dirt or sand, a method not suited for most purposes, and thus, only the most intelligent individuals were truly disadvantaged by illiteracy. With the rise of universal literacy, writing had to become simpler and more efficient, which led to the simplification and streamlining of complex hieroglyphs. This new form of efficient writing was so compelling that even people without access to paper or the opportunity to master this style of writing adopted it. Widespread literacy, coupled with the writing techniques that emerged, became invaluable for recording vast amounts of information that could no longer be relied upon to be stored in one person’s memory. Humanity's capacity to maintain knowledge increased dramatically, and literacy also made long-distance communication much more feasible. It marked an essential early step towards building a more unified global community.
