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Modern technology has allowed us to uncover the life of an ancient European in unprecedented detail. Otzi, the most ancient and well-preserved human ever discovered, remains the subject of extensive study. Despite being analyzed for countless hours, this 45-year-old continues to reveal astonishing insights into ancient weather patterns, genetics, migration, and the advanced nature of his society. Murdered 5,300 years ago, Otzi was discovered in the Italian Alps in 1991 and has been sharing his captivating story ever since.
10. He May Have Been Sterile
The genes of this Copper Age individual have unveiled numerous insights, with one of the most unexpected being that Otzi was likely infertile. While it's impossible to confirm without time travel whether he had a family, researchers identified genetic markers of infertility in the mid-2000s. During an examination of his intestines, mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) was extracted. This type of DNA, inherited solely from the mother, contains two regions linked to male infertility—both of which Otzi possessed.
The genetic analysis also shed light on Otzi’s maternal ancestry. Intriguingly, he was the first individual ever found to belong to a previously unidentified subgroup of the K haplogroup. Haplogroups help trace the migration and settlement patterns of early humans across continents. Rare in Europeans, the K haplogroup suggests that Otzi’s maternal lineage likely originated from south of the Alps or the Otztal region to the north.
9. The Ancient Meteorologist
Otzi serves as a unique historical weather record. Preserved in ice for over 5,000 years, the mummy has provided invaluable data about a lesser-known warm period. By analyzing the age and condition of the corpse, as well as its glacial surroundings, researchers have been able to track ancient climate patterns. Soil samples indicate that around 6,400 years ago—more than 1,000 years before Otzi’s death—the region experienced warm and fertile conditions.
When Otzi met his demise, a significant climatic shift was underway. His body was swiftly encased in ice, signaling a dramatic temperature drop. This cold spell fueled the expansion of massive glaciers that persisted for 5,000 years. Starting around 1970, these glaciers began to recede and have since been shrinking at an alarming rate. This thaw led to the discovery of Otzi’s remains by a pair of hikers. Without his icy grave, the warm period that lasted several centuries might have remained unknown.
8. MicroRNA Stability
In 2017, Otzi and a World War I mummified soldier participated in pioneering genetic research. Scientists aimed to determine if a newly identified biomarker, microRNA, could survive in ancient tissues. Biomarkers are crucial in medicine as they provide insights into an individual’s health. MicroRNA, a type of ribonucleic acid molecule, is particularly valued for its stability. Damaged or degraded markers, however, are ineffective.
A team of university researchers painstakingly collected samples from Otzi’s skin and stomach. Remarkably, both Otzi and the soldier exhibited stable microRNA. While some genetic markers common today are absent in Otzi, the survival of microRNA over millennia has been confirmed. Although the full potential of these molecules is still being explored, they are already celebrated as a breakthrough in therapeutic science.
7. Tattoo Therapy
Otzi had his own form of ancient therapy. Over two decades of research, scientists identified a range of medical conditions he suffered from, including Lyme disease, gallstones, gum disease, arteriosclerosis, and a whipworm infection in his colon. Researchers previously speculated a connection between these ailments and the 19 groups of tattoos scattered across his body, suggesting they might represent an early form of acupuncture. In 2015, advanced scans revealed additional markings, increasing the total number of tattoos to 61.
The tattoos were not decorative but consisted of crosses and lines, likely created by embedding charcoal into small cuts in the skin. About 80% of these markings align with acupuncture points related to back and stomach issues, areas where Otzi would have experienced pain. The newly discovered tattoos, four tightly grouped lines, are positioned near his lower right ribs. An acupuncturist analyzed these and confirmed their alignment with treatments for gallstones and whipworms. If this practice was indeed acupuncture, it predates the earliest known records from China by 2,000 years.
6. The Copper Connection
The discovery of a valuable copper ax among Otzi’s belongings led researchers to reconsider long-held assumptions and raised new questions. Initially, it was believed the metal originated from the Alpine region, but 2016 tests revealed the ore came from Southern Tuscany, Italy. This unexpected finding sparked curiosity: How did Otzi acquire the ax? Was it his own, or was he a trader? If he was trading the weapon, it raises questions about the extent of travel and trade between Southern Italy and the Alpine region during his time.
Testing also resolved a longstanding debate. Elevated levels of arsenic and copper in Otzi’s hair had suggested he might have been involved in forging the ax, potentially inhaling harmful chemicals during the process. However, further analysis of his nails, organs, and skin showed minimal contamination, with only slightly elevated arsenic levels in his nails. Copper was primarily found in his extremities, not within his body, making it unlikely that he was a coppersmith.
5. He Was Highly Advanced
When Otzi was discovered, his true identity was not immediately clear. The climbers who stumbled upon his remains initially mistook him for a modern hiker, while researchers labeled him a simple shepherd. However, further analysis revealed a far more complex individual. Otzi’s equipment and attire suggest he would have been more akin to a modern soldier than a humble farmer. His arsenal included a flint dagger, a yew longbow, arrows, and a copper ax. Yew bows were cutting-edge technology at the time and would later become a key advantage for the English army in battles millennia after Otzi’s era.
Otzi was also equipped with a framed backpack, tools for starting fires, preserved food, and a first aid kit containing potent medicinal herbs. His clothing was as advanced as modern military and mountaineering gear, featuring triple-layered animal hides, a bearskin hat, a grass cape, and leather shoes insulated with grass. Far from the stereotypical caveman, Otzi demonstrated a sophisticated understanding of how to utilize natural resources effectively.
4. Blood From Four People
The Iceman’s killer faced a fierce struggle. Blood discovered on Otzi in 2003 revealed a violent series of events in the days before his death—events in which he was the aggressor. DNA analysis of his tools, weapons, and clothing uncovered traces of human blood from four individuals, none of whom were Otzi himself.
An arrowhead contained blood from two people, suggesting Otzi shot one victim, retrieved the arrow, and used it to kill another. A third person’s blood was found on his knife, while a fourth individual’s blood stained the left side of his goatskin coat. The fate of this fourth person remains a mystery, though researchers believe they may have been a wounded companion Otzi attempted to rescue.
3. He May Have Been Laid to Rest
A 2010 study proposed that the Alpine border where Otzi was discovered might be a burial site rather than the location of his murder. The research argues that certain inconsistencies align if Otzi died elsewhere and was later transported to the mountain pass for a ceremonial burial—months after his death. Pollen inside the mummy indicated spring, the season of his death, while pollen in the surrounding ice suggested he was placed there in late summer. By tracing the movement of Otzi’s belongings over time, researchers pinpointed a nearby rock platform as his original resting place.
Not all researchers agree with the theory of relocation and burial, nor the idea that Otzi was a high-ranking community member. The doctor who performed the initial autopsy believes Otzi’s twisted arm position occurred at death and would have been corrected for a respected individual. Since all known settlements were located far below, it would have required extraordinary effort for a group to carry his body such a distance for burial.
2. The Killing
Most experts involved in the Iceman investigation agree that the full story of his murder will remain a mystery. However, key clues provide a general understanding. Otzi had been in a violent conflict prior to his death, as evidenced by his hand injury and the blood of four individuals found on his belongings. The hand wound, likely defensive, was the only injury sustained days before his death. Investigators believe Otzi was not defeated in this fight but instead provoked someone who sought revenge.
In 2001, an arrowhead was found lodged in Otzi’s left shoulder. Evidence suggests he felt secure shortly before the attack, as he had rested and eaten a hearty meal. The assailant shot Otzi from a distance, and most studies conclude he bled to death on the spot. The motive wasn’t theft; Otzi carried valuable items like medicine, food, clothing, and weapons, yet none were taken. The attack likely stemmed from a personal vendetta, and the killer left Otzi’s body untouched after his death.
1. His Last Journey Was Remarkable
In his final days, Otzi traversed challenging landscapes despite his health issues, showcasing his physical resilience. Researchers reconstructed his path using an unexpected clue: moss. Two species of moss entered his system, likely through his diet. Hymenostylium recurvirostrum, which thrives in wet environments, was probably consumed from a water source. His last meal of red deer and ibex meat was likely wrapped in fan moss, leading to its ingestion.
The most surprising discovery was Sphagnum imbricatum, commonly known as bog moss, which was used to treat wounds as recently as World War II. This highly absorbent plant also possesses antiseptic and antibiotic properties. Otzi had a severe cut on his right palm, and researchers speculate he used the bog moss as a bandage, accidentally ingesting some while eating or drinking. Remarkably, the moss grew 20 kilometers (12 mi) south of his death site. Otzi journeyed from the high Alps to the lowlands to gather the moss, then returned to the highlands, covering nearly 60 kilometers (37 mi) over two to three days.
