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The tale of Typhoid Mary, the asymptomatic carrier who unknowingly spread illness wherever she traveled, is well-known. Yet, few are aware of Mary Mallon's fierce struggle for freedom, armed with a carving knife, as she resisted imprisonment by the New York City Health Department.
Mary Mallon, famously known as “Typhoid Mary,” is seen by some as a victim and by others as a remorseless killer. Her story highlights the limited understanding and treatment options for typhoid in the 19th century. Even now, typhoid affects approximately 22 million people annually, claiming around 200,000 lives, particularly in developing nations, despite modern vaccines and treatments.
Is it surprising, then, that Typhoid Mary instilled such terror in the hearts of 19th-century society?
10. Typhoid Fever Ranked Among the Deadliest Diseases of the 19th Century
During the 19th century, New York City faced rampant disease outbreaks, exacerbated by the daily accumulation of manure from horses on the streets. By 1894, the manure crisis had escalated globally, with major cities overwhelmed. Estimates suggest New York City alone housed over 100,000 horses, producing at least 1.1 million kilograms (2.5 million pounds) of waste daily, polluting the urban landscape.
The streets were also littered with dead and decaying animals, while overcrowded tenements with inadequate sanitation systems worsened living conditions. These factors created a perfect storm for the rapid spread of typhoid fever.
The disease attacked the stomach and small intestines, spreading infections to vital organs like the liver, gallbladder, spleen, heart, lungs, and kidneys. The most severe damage occurred in the intestines, leading to delirium and intense diarrhea in critical cases. With a fatality rate of 10–30 percent, typhoid fever claimed lives in excruciating pain.
9. Dr. George Soper Emerged as a Renowned Hero in the Fight Against Germs
Dr. George Soper dedicated his research to understanding typhoid fever, focusing on its causes, transmission, and prevention. Presenting himself as a “sanitation engineer and chemist,” he gained recognition, leading companies to enlist his expertise in studying germs and the spread of disease.
In 1903, Ithaca, New York, faced a severe typhoid outbreak, leaving countless residents bedridden. The city hospital admitted over a dozen patients daily, with a significant number being college students. The crisis forced around 1,000 Cornell University students, more than a third of the student population, to flee the campus to escape the deadly illness.
Soper took immediate action, targeting the contamination of streams, rivers, and wells by sewage. He traced the outbreak to Six Mile Creek and implemented measures such as boiling water and introducing a new filtration system for the city’s water supply.
Additionally, he oversaw a large-scale disinfection of local hospitals and assembled a team of 15 workers to sanitize 1,200 outhouses. His efforts were widely praised for revitalizing the health of Ithaca and Cornell University.
8. Typhoid Fever Followed Mary Wherever She Traveled
The Warrens, a wealthy family, rented a vacation home in Oyster Bay on Long Island. The household included six family members and five servants. When six individuals fell ill with typhoid fever, the cook was initially not suspected.
The Thompsons, who owned the property, enlisted George Soper to investigate. After examining the water supply and food, Soper shifted his focus to Mary Mallon, the family’s previous cook.
Further investigation showed that Mallon had been employed by eight families. Typhoid outbreaks occurred in seven of these households, totaling 22 cases.
Although this appeared to be an improbable coincidence, Soper realized he required more evidence. Specifically, he needed cooperation from Mary Mallon herself.
7. Typhoid Mary Responded with Violence
George Soper was determined to fulfill his mission. He made an unexpected visit to Mary Mallon at her current workplace. After introducing himself as a representative of the New York City Health Department, he informed her that she was spreading a deadly illness. He then asked for samples of her urine, stool, and blood.
Mary reacted with fury. She shouted obscenities, seized a carving knife, and charged at him. Soper fled the premises immediately.
Believing Mary might respond more favorably to a woman, Soper sent Josephine Baker, one of the pioneering female doctors, to speak with her. (Some accounts suggest Hermann Biggs from the health department dispatched Baker.) Regardless, the encounter was equally chaotic. Baker recounted, “She (Mary) emerged aggressively, cursing and fighting with remarkable intensity and energy.”
When Baker arrived with police and an ambulance, Mary attempted to attack her with a large kitchen fork. She then resisted violently, kicking, screaming, and cursing at the officers. To prevent her escape, Baker restrained Mary by sitting on her chest, holding her down on the ambulance floor.
Later, Mary sent menacing letters to George Soper and Josephine Baker, threatening to use a gun to kill them.
6. Mary Mallon Was Forcibly Detained
Mary Mallon was forcibly taken and detained without a trial. After being placed in an ambulance by police, she was transported to Willard Parker Hospital, where she was compelled to provide urine, stool, and blood samples to confirm her status as a typhoid fever carrier.
During the examination, Mary repeatedly claimed she was healthy and could not comprehend how she could transmit a deadly illness. She was adamant that she had never contracted typhoid fever.
Walter Bensel of the New York City Health Department stated, “This woman poses a significant threat to public health and the community, which is why she has been detained as a prisoner.”
Once the examination concluded, hospital staff transported Mary to a boat. The steamer took her to North Brother Island, part of Riverside Hospital. Located in the middle of the East River and reachable only by boat, the island made escape unthinkable. The facility was used to quarantine individuals with contagious diseases such as typhus and smallpox.
Mary resided in a small riverside bungalow, which served as her home for nearly three years.
5. Soper Proposed Releasing Mary on the Condition That She Undergo Gallbladder Removal
During her stay at Willard Parker Hospital, Dr. Soper approached Mary with a proposal. Since the majority of her germs resided in her gallbladder, he offered her freedom in exchange for the removal of this organ. He explained that the gallbladder, much like the appendix, was unnecessary for survival.
Mary firmly rejected the idea of surgery. “No one will cut me. My gallbladder is perfectly fine,” she asserted.
Surgical procedures always carry risks, but in the early 1900s, these risks were even greater, as illustrated by the image above of a 1900 operation. Surgeons didn’t wear masks, and operating rooms lacked proper hygiene, especially by modern standards.
Mary grew increasingly distrustful of doctors, and her skepticism was understandable.
4. The Health Department Administered Experimental Drugs to Typhoid Mary
Doctors prescribed Urotropin, a medication derived from ammonia and formaldehyde. It proved ineffective, and Mary experienced unpleasant side effects. Physicians also tried other drugs, adjusted her diet, and administered laxatives. Despite these efforts, tests confirmed she remained a carrier of typhoid fever.
3. Mary Was Neither the Sole Typhoid Carrier Nor the Most Lethal
Mary Mallon was the first identified typhoid carrier. By 1909, the New York City Health Department had discovered five healthy carriers, but only Mary was quarantined. She was linked to infecting 47–51 people, resulting in three fatalities.
Another healthy carrier, Tony Labella, infected 122 people—more than double Mallon’s count—and caused five deaths. He was isolated for two weeks before being released. At 39, he disappeared.
The Health Department also banned typhoid carrier Alphonse Cotils, a restaurant and bakery owner, from preparing food for others. When he defied the order, charges were brought against him. However, the judge chose not to arrest him, citing his responsibility to support his wife and children.
During that period, New York City reported up to 4,500 new typhoid cases annually, with an estimated 3 percent of patients becoming carriers. This meant around 135 new carriers emerged each year. While Mary Mallon spent much of her life in isolation, she was far from the only typhoid carrier.
2. Mary Was Deceptive
In February 1910, Ernst Lederle, the newly appointed health commissioner, proposed a deal to Mary. She would be freed if she stopped cooking and agreed to undergo monthly tests at the health department.
For the initial year, Mary complied with all the conditions. She visited the health department every month and avoided working as a cook.
However, she faced difficulties finding employment and earning a living. Since cooks earned more than other domestic workers, Mary eventually stopped reporting to the health department. Initially, no one noticed. She adopted the name Mary Brown and resumed working as a cook in various positions.
In 1915, five years after Mary’s release, a typhoid outbreak occurred at Sloane Hospital for Women (formerly Sloane Maternity Hospital) in Manhattan. Twenty-five individuals contracted the disease, and two of them died.
Dr. Soper once again took charge of the investigation. He found that the hospital had employed a new cook, Mrs. Brown, just three months before the typhoid cases emerged.
The kitchen staff underwent testing, and Mrs. Brown’s results came back positive. Soper grew more suspicious upon learning the cook had vanished again. Reviewing the kitchen records, he identified Mary’s handwriting from the threatening letters she had sent him.
This time, public outrage grew. The Board of Health sent Mary back to Riverside Hospital, where she remained for 23 years. After a stroke left her paralyzed, she was moved from her cottage to the island’s hospital, where she stayed until her death on November 11, 1938.
1. Mary Received a Marriage Proposal During Quarantine
Reuben Gray, a 28-year-old Michigan farmer, wrote to Health Commissioner Thomas Darlington. Having read about Typhoid Mary, Gray proposed marriage, offering her a home on his remote farm where she wouldn’t endanger others.
Gray was aware of Mary’s culinary skills, which he highly valued in a spouse. “Before committing to marriage,” Gray wrote, “she should know that I was once insane, though it has been over three years since then.”
Mary turned down his proposal.
