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Since the dawn of civilization, humans have recorded their thoughts and ideas through writing, aiming to create a lasting legacy. While many early texts have been lost forever, a fortunate handful have survived the ages. Here, we explore 10 of the oldest known literary works.
10. The Tale Of Two Brothers - Egyptian, c. 1185 BC
Penned during or shortly after the rule of Seti II, who governed Egypt from 1200–1194 BC, The Tale of Two Brothers is regarded by many as the oldest known fairy tale. While the exact date of the papyrus's discovery remains unclear, it was acquired by the British Museum in 1857 and later translated from its original hieratic script. The narrative begins with the brothers Anubis and Bata. Anubis's wife attempts to seduce Bata, who resists her advances. She then accuses Bata of assaulting her, fabricating a story of illness and claiming he tried to seduce her.
Bata escapes, fearing Anubis's wrath, and pleads with the god Re-Harakhti for salvation. To prove his innocence, Bata cuts off his own genitals and throws them into a lake. Anubis, upon discovering the truth, returns home and kills his wife. Later, Bata places his heart in a tree, which is cut down by his wife, leading to his death. Anubis eventually searches for him.
The latter part of the tale shifts focus, delving into themes of kingship. Bata is resurrected and crowned king, with Anubis assuming the role of his prince.
9. The Westcar Papyrus - Egyptian, c. 1700 BC
Commonly translated as King Cheops and the Magicians, the Westcar Papyrus comprises five distinct tales, each highlighting an ancient Egyptian priest or magician and the miracles they performed. Reportedly discovered by British explorer Henry Westcar, after whom it is named, the papyrus was later acquired by a German Egyptologist who deciphered its hieratic script. Despite its enigmatic origins, it is now housed in the Egyptian Museum in Berlin.
Among the tales, the story of Dedi of Dedsnefru stands out. Claimed to be 110 years old with an insatiable appetite, Dedi was also a famed magician known for an extraordinary feat: he could reattach severed heads. Cheops summoned him to his court and offered a servant as a test subject, but Dedi declined, stating he couldn’t perform such magic on humans. Instead, he demonstrated his skill on a goose, swiftly decapitating and restoring it. The king, impressed, demanded further demonstrations, culminating in Dedi performing the act on an ox. (The specifics of how he achieved this remain undocumented.)
8. The Lament For Ur - Sumerian, c. 2000 BC
Among the world's oldest poetic works, the “Lament for Ur” serves as a mournful elegy for the ruined city, composed by the early kings of the Isin dynasty who aspired to restore it. The poem aimed to soothe the troubled spirit of Nanna, the god of Ur, whose favor was essential for reconstruction. Additionally, it sought to dispel any suspicion that the Isin dynasty kings were involved in the city's downfall.
In the first section, the goddess Ningal, Nanna’s wife, narrates the lament, while the voices of the survivors dominate the latter half. It opens with a recounting of Sumerian cities recently devastated, interpreted as divine abandonment. Ningal vividly describes Ur’s ruin, “with bodies heaped in every street,” and laments how the city’s very bricks cry out to her. The poem concludes with the survivors offering praise to Nanna and Ningal.
7. Classic Of Poetry - Chinese, 1000–600 BC
The Classic of Poetry, also known as Shijing, is recognized as the earliest collection of Chinese poetry. It is widely believed that Confucius, the renowned philosopher, was responsible for its compilation. This anthology is one of the Five Classics, a group of ancient texts. (Many are familiar with the I Ching, an ancient guide to divination.) These poems, passed down orally for generations, have no known authors, but most were likely composed during the Zhou dynasty, a period that laid the groundwork for Chinese cultural heritage.
The Classic of Poetry comprises more than 305 individual poems, organized into three sections: Feng (Songs), Ya (Odes and Epics), and Song (Hymns). The Feng section stands out, featuring folk songs from ordinary people, expressing both sorrow over hardship and a resilient sense of hope.
6. The Ipuwer PapyrusEgyptian, c. 1650 BC
While some argue that this ancient text validates the historical accuracy of the Old Testament, the Ipuwer Papyrus is attributed to an Egyptian writer from the 17th century BC. Known initially as The Admonitions of an Egyptian Sage, the manuscript paints a vivid picture of Egypt during a period of chaos and decline. It describes widespread plagues, including the Nile turning blood-red, making its waters unfit for consumption.
The root of the chaos was attributed to the lower classes aspiring beyond their social rank. This upheaval led to rampant lawlessness, with thieves and bandits overrunning the nation. Property records were obliterated, creating disputes over ownership, and the situation grew so dire that some resorted to suicide by crocodile in the Nile. The Ipuwer Papyrus, however, is a copy of an earlier work, leaving its exact origins uncertain.
5. The Story Of SinuheEgyptian, c. 2000 BC
Considered one of Ancient Egypt's most significant literary works, The Story of Sinuhe recounts the tale of an official from Amenemhet I’s harem. During a journey to Libya with Prince Sesostris I, a messenger arrives with news of Amenemhet’s murder and a conspiracy against Sesostris. Fearing for his life due to his association with the prince, Sinuhe escapes Egypt and finds refuge in Syria, where he marries into a prominent family and gains respect within the community.
Over the years, Sinuhe earns fame by defending his father-in-law’s territory from invaders. He hosts Egyptian envoys multiple times, and they eventually inform Pharaoh Sesostris, who survived the assassination attempt, of Sinuhe’s whereabouts. Despite his past flight, Sinuhe is invited to return to Egypt. He accepts, receiving wealth and honor upon his homecoming.
4. The Story Of WenamunEgyptian, c. 1000 BC
The sole surviving manuscript of this late Egyptian narrative is housed in Moscow’s Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts. Acquired in the late 19th century, The Story of Wenamun recounts the potentially true adventures of Wenamun, a high-ranking official from the temple of Amun. Sent on a trading expedition to Phoenicia (present-day Syria), his mission is to acquire cedarwood to rebuild the sacred barque used to transport Amun’s statue during religious festivals.
Similar to an Odyssey, Wenamun’s seemingly straightforward task evolves into a prolonged and perilous journey. After reaching Cyprus, he narrowly escapes death at the hands of an enraged crowd, finding refuge under the protection of a Cypriot queen. Sadly, the story remains incomplete, as no additional fragments of the papyrus have been discovered.
This work is invaluable to historians, offering rare insights into the societal and political conditions of Egypt and Phoenicia during that era.
3. The Maxims Of PtahhotepEgyptian, c. 2400 BC
A concise 18-page compilation of wisdom, The Maxims of Ptahhotep encapsulates the teachings of Ptahhotep, an advisor to pharaohs Menkauhor and Assa Djed-ka-Ra. Declining the throne, Ptahhotep chose to serve as a high priest, dedicating his life to his duties within the kingdom. Similar to The Instructions of Shuruppak, these writings were framed as guidance for his son.
Opening with reflections on aging, The Maxims of Ptahhotep transitions smoothly between principles of civic duty and societal order to advice on personal conduct and relationships. Attributing his insights to divine inspiration, Ptahhotep concludes by reflecting on his 110-year life, his fulfillment in practicing Maat (the ancient Egyptian concept of justice) for the king, and his hope that his son would carry forward his legacy of virtuous deeds.
2. ‘The Instructions Of Shuruppak’Sumerian, c. 2500 BC
A compilation of teachings and aphorisms, akin to biblical Proverbs, The Instructions of Shuruppak is a text written by a father for Ziusudra, the protagonist of the Sumerian flood myth. As one of the finest examples of Sumerian wisdom literature, it provides numerous practical and ethical guidelines to help Ziusudra lead a virtuous life. From everyday advice to moral principles, the text concludes with a tribute to Nisaba, the scribe who recorded these teachings.
The extensive use of The Instructions of Shuruppak as an educational resource is evident from the numerous surviving copies unearthed by archaeologists. With timeless lessons such as “do not commit rape” and “avoid making judgments while intoxicated,” it’s no wonder this work remained influential for so long.
1. ‘The Poor Man Of Nippur’Akkadian, c. 1500 BC
As one of the earliest known folk tales, The Poor Man of Nippur follows Gimil-Ninurta, a man in such dire poverty that he owns nothing more than the clothes on his back. With his last coin, he buys a goat to prepare a final meal and visits the mayor’s home to share it. (In some versions, he offers the goat as a gift to the mayor.) Mocked for his poverty and the meager offering, Gimil-Ninurta is beaten by the mayor’s servants and cast out. Swearing vengeance, he vows to repay the mayor three times over.
Gimil-Ninurta first seeks out the king of Nippur, persuading him to provide luxurious garments and a royal chariot. Returning to his town, he deceives the mayor into attempting to rob him, then blackmails and beats him for the crime of stealing from the king. Next, disguised as a priest, he humiliates and strikes the mayor once more. Finally, after the mayor increases his guards, Gimil-Ninurta hires a decoy, infiltrates the mayor’s home, and delivers the third beating, fulfilling his promise.
