Buzz
The 11th Olympic Games of the modern era took place in Berlin in 1936. It became infamous as the ‘Nazi Olympics,’ a platform for Adolf Hitler and his regime to engage in blatant self-promotion. The Nazis hoped the Games would act as a symbol of Aryan superiority, justifying their belief in a master race. It marked the first time politics intruded so overtly into the world of sports, resulting in one of the most controversial Olympic events ever.
10. The Olympics in Opposition
As Berlin readied itself to host the 1936 Olympics, a growing number of people were already wary of Nazi ideology and motives. Those involved in the sports world were especially alarmed by reports of Jewish athletes facing persecution. Many members of the Olympic community began to feel that participation in the Games would be seen as tacit approval of the Nazi regime. Calls for a boycott grew louder, with the United States—traditionally sending the largest team—at the center of the debate.
Other nations also had groups protesting the Games. Spain, in particular, took a bold stance by suggesting an anti-Nazi counter-Olympics to be held in Barcelona, a city that had lost out to Berlin in the 1931 bid. Barcelona had been devastated by the decision, convinced that it was fully equipped to host the Games, boasting new, modern facilities from the 1929 International Exposition, along with the Hotel Olimpico, which could accommodate the athletes.
Spain was determined to steal the spotlight from Hitler and his Nazi propaganda machine. Invitations to the ‘People’s Olympics’ were sent, and they were answered by radical and left-leaning athletes from across the globe, including the US. German athletes, too, participated in protest against the regime at home. The event attracted communists, socialists, and anarchists—6,000 athletes from 22 countries. The emblem of the People’s Olympics, symbolizing resistance to Nazi bigotry and racism, featured three muscular athletes: one white, one black, and one of mixed heritage. The spirit of solidarity was palpable in Barcelona.
However, just one day before the opening ceremony, fascist General Francisco Franco launched a military uprising against the Spanish government. The Spanish Civil War had begun, with Hitler siding with Franco and the Nationalists. As a result, the People’s Olympics was canceled. Despite this, many athletes had already made a powerful statement against the Nazis. In time, Spain and the USSR would be the sole countries to boycott Berlin. Barcelona would later get its chance to host a legitimate Olympic celebration—this time in 1992.
9. The Origins of the Torch Relay and Its Nazi Roots
Few moments in the modern Olympics are as iconic as the torch relay, a symbol of global unity and cooperation. From the sacred flame being lit in Olympia, Greece, to its dramatic arrival at the stadium, it never fails to ignite passion and excitement. This is precisely the experience German Minister of Propaganda Joseph Goebbels hoped to create—not for the sake of international camaraderie, but to glorify the Nazi regime.
What many don’t realize is that the torch relay was a creation of the Nazis. While the ancient Greeks did have flame-bearing relay races as part of their religious rituals, the concept of a torch relay had never been part of the modern Olympic Games until Berlin. The idea wasn’t actually Goebbels’s—Carl Diem, the secretary general of the Games’ organizing committee, proposed it, inspired by the flame that burned at the 1928 Amsterdam Olympics. Goebbels, however, quickly saw an opportunity to exploit the relay for Nazi propaganda, turning it into a grand spectacle of power and ceremony.
During the lighting ceremony in Greece, the flame was dedicated to Hitler while the band played the Nazi anthem Die Fahne Hoch. By presenting the relay as an ancient tradition, the Nazis positioned themselves as the rightful heirs to the progression of civilization, from Greece to Rome, and finally to Germany. The 2,500-kilometer (1,500 mi) route to Berlin passed through Czechoslovakia, where it sparked a confrontation between ethnic Germans and Czechs. On the final leg of the relay, only blonde-haired, blue-eyed athletes were permitted to carry the torch.
As Goebbels had intended, the dramatic image of the flame being carried into the stadium by a perfect example of Aryan manhood led spectators to believe that the Nazis were strong, yet not brutal. The New York Times reported that Germany displayed “goodwill” and “flawless hospitality.” The Associated Press assured its audience that the Games symbolized peace in Europe.
The emptiness of Nazi propaganda became evident with the devastation of the war years. However, when the Olympics resumed in London in 1948, the torch relay remained, now carrying a message of friendship and peace. It continues to stand as a symbol of goodwill, one of the few legacies of Nazism that we decided to keep.
8. Pigeons Spoil Der Fuhrer’s Grand Spectacle
The opening ceremony was a breathtaking showcase of German might. Hitler’s motorcade sped through streets adorned with swastikas toward the Olympic stadium. High above Berlin, the majestic airship Hindenburg glided across the sky. The Fuhrer and the Nazi elite descended the steps into the arena, greeted by the ecstatic screams of a crowd of 100,000, who worshipped at their feet. These were the gods of the new Olympus. It was Hitler’s day, a moment of absolute glorification. Yet, it seemed the birds had other plans.
Louis Zamperini, a member of the US Olympic team, recalled a Chaplinesque moment that was as fitting for Hitler’s mustache as it was hilarious. Thousands of pigeons were released into the sky, and then a cannon fired, scaring the pigeons so much that they literally dropped their waste on the runners below. Zamperini laughed as he recalled, “We had straw hats and you could hear the pitter-patter on our hats. It was a mass of droppings and it was so funny.” With typical American boldness, Zamperini would later steal the swastika flag from outside Hitler’s Reich Chancellery, outrunning the guards and keeping it as a souvenir.
Other amusing blunders also occurred. The New Zealand team mistakenly believed a German officer, standing to the left of Hitler’s podium, was the Fuhrer himself and thus removed their hats in his honor. They quickly put them on again when they realized their error while passing Hitler. In another instance, spectators misinterpreted the French team’s Olympic salute (a right arm extended sideways) as the Nazi salute (arm forward) and cheered their traditional enemy with enthusiastic approval. Among all the teams, only the US refused to dip their flag to Hitler, explaining the decision as a matter of military protocol in an official statement.
An awkward incident also occurred on the opening day, involving the teams from Liechtenstein and Haiti. Like a partygoer discovering someone else wearing the same outfit, the Liechtenstein team was stunned to realize Haiti’s flag bore the same blue-and-red design as theirs. This presented a potential issue for the medal ceremonies. Fortunately, Haiti’s lone athlete withdrew, and Liechtenstein did not win any medals. To avoid confusion in the future, Liechtenstein added a crown to its flag the following year.
7. The First Olympics Televised for the World
The 1936 Berlin Olympics marked the world’s first televised sporting event. The broadcast was managed by German companies Telefunken and Fernseh. A total of 21 cameras, including three massive 2-meter-long (6 ft) Fernsehkanonen, or 'television cannons,' transmitted live footage for 72 hours to specially designed viewing booths, known as 'Public Television Offices,' located in Berlin and Potsdam. Around 150,000 spectators packed into 28 viewing rooms throughout Berlin.
The early technology from RCA and Farnsworth produced only grainy black-and-white images. Yet, in 1936, this was a significant leap forward compared to following the games on the radio, which had been the norm since 1921, when Pittsburgh’s KDKA began broadcasting boxing, soon followed by baseball and football. It was also a technological victory for Germany, as they beat the US in the TV race. The Germans, however, conveniently overlooked the fact that the technology was developed by Vladimir Zworykin, a Russian Jew, and Philo Farnsworth, a Mormon—two men whose backgrounds would have been despised by the Nazis.
The Germans were well aware they were shaping the future. As the program guide *Television In Germany* states: 'From these initial stages of television in broadcasting and telephony, a cultural development is emerging that promises to be of unforeseen importance to the progress of mankind.'
America had one small consolation. The first broadcast showcased Jesse Owens winning the 100-meter final. It was a bitter irony that German technology was used to broadcast Owens, the African-American athlete, defying the Nazi belief in Aryan superiority.
6. Jesse Owens and the Nazi Footwear
Jesse Owens achieved an extraordinary feat in Berlin, securing four gold medals in the 100 meters, 200 meters, long jump, and 4×100 meter relay. He became the undisputed hero of the Olympics. However, what remains lesser-known is the assistance he received from Adolf “Adi” Dassler, a member of the Nazi Party and a shoemaker whose company, Gebruder Dassler Schuhfabrik, specialized in track and field footwear. Dassler entered the Olympic Village with the goal of outfitting as many athletes as possible with his shoes. Without the benefit of widespread advertising, his strategy relied on word of mouth to spread the word.
Dassler enlisted the help of his friend, Jo Waitzer, the coach of the German track team, who supported his mission to design shoes that could boost athletic performance. Waitzer agreed to encourage athletes from other nations to try the shoes. Having read about Owens’s stellar performances in the Olympic trials, Dassler was particularly eager to get his shoes on the American sprinter’s feet. Dassler persuaded Waitzer to give some shoes to Owens. The coach, however, hesitated, knowing the danger he’d face if the authorities discovered his interaction with the African-American athlete.
Despite the dangers, Waitzer took a bold step and smuggled two or three pairs of Adi Dassler’s custom-made shoes to Owens. These shoes were crafted from glove leather and featured reinforced heels and toes with six track spikes—state-of-the-art for their time. Owens went on to win the 100 meters in these German-made shoes, and by the time he wore the third pair, he insisted that he would only wear those shoes, becoming the first unwitting spokesperson for the brand.
Word quickly spread throughout Berlin that the talented black American athlete had achieved his historic victories wearing shoes crafted in the small German town of Herzogenaurach. As a result, Dassler’s sales soared. This newfound attention led to worldwide recognition for the shoe company, known today by its iconic name—Adidas, named after Adi Dassler.
5. The Most Controversial Basketball Final
The Berlin Olympics featured the debut of Olympic basketball, with Dr. James Naismith, the inventor of the sport, having the honor of tossing the first ball for the inaugural game between Estonia and France. The United States, being the birthplace of basketball, was the overwhelming favorite and lived up to expectations, easily defeating their opponents before facing Canada in the final.
Though basketball was intended as an indoor game, the German organizers, unfamiliar with the sport and lacking a basketball team of their own, failed to secure indoor facilities. Instead, the games were held outdoors on a clay tennis court, with wooden-backed goals set up for the occasion. The players had to contend with a ball that was larger and heavier than modern basketballs, and which had a slit on one side for the bladder, resulting in an imperfectly round shape. This made dribbling on the clay challenging, even in dry conditions.
The day before the final, a heavy downpour turned the court into a muddy mess. The German organizers, eager to proceed with the match, decided against postponing it despite the continuing rain the following day. The Americans and Canadians faced off in the mud, with just 500 spectators in attendance. Dribbling became nearly impossible, and the ball was primarily moved up the court by passing. The slippery surface significantly slowed the pace of the game, while the German referees, who didn’t speak English, made some questionable calls.
Despite the challenging conditions, the score at halftime of the 40-minute match was just 14–4. In the end, the US team managed to secure a dominant 19–8 victory over Canada.
4. Hitler’s Football Disaster
Adolf Hitler was never particularly fond of football. He believed that sports like boxing and athletics were better suited for building a physically fit German youth. However, the Nazis supported a strong football team for propaganda purposes. They established clubs and encouraged participation, as football was the most popular sport and guaranteed to bring in money for the regime.
Under the leadership of team manager Otto Nerz, the German football team became a formidable force, and by 1936, they were co-favorites with Great Britain. Their first match was a crushing 9–0 victory over Luxembourg, a performance so impressive that the organizers decided to invite Hitler to watch their next match against Norway. Hitler, who had never attended a football match, was eager to see his Aryan superstars dominate the opposition they had beaten in the previous eight encounters. This match seemed like a guaranteed win.
Reluctantly, Hitler agreed to attend and, along with 55,000 spectators, took his seat at the Poststadion, anticipating a glorious victory for his Wunderteam. The Germans dominated early on, with the Norwegians struggling to advance past the half-line. But soon, the Germans squandered their opportunities. Norway seized an opening and scored the first goal. Hitler, visibly agitated, began throwing a tantrum. The Germans pressed harder, with Nerz sending defenders forward, but another Norwegian shot found its way past the German goalie. Unable to contain his frustration, Hitler stormed out of the stadium in a fit of rage. The final score was 2–0 in favor of Norway.
3. Elizabeth Robinson’s Unbelievable Comeback
Elizabeth Robinson's gold medal in 1936 came five years after she had been presumed dead, her broken body brought to a mortician to be prepared for burial.
Betty hailed from Riverdale, a suburb of Chicago, and attended Thornton Township High School. In 1928, her biology teacher was astonished to see her chase and catch up to a commuter train. After timing her in a 50-meter (150 ft) sprint down the school corridor, the teacher encouraged Betty to join the Illinois Women's Athletic Club. Soon, Betty was setting near-record times in competitive events. By July, she had passed the trials and earned a spot on the US team for the 1928 Olympics.
At just 16, and having never left home before, Betty sailed to Europe. This was the first Olympics where women were allowed to compete in track and field events, despite objections from Baron de Coubertin and Pope Pius XI. In Amsterdam, Betty became the first woman—and the youngest ever—to win the gold medal in the 100 meters, setting a world record of 12.2 seconds. She returned to the United States as a national hero and continued to shatter records after that.
Then, on a hot June day in 1931, disaster struck. Betty was flying with her cousin Wilson Palmer in a biplane 200 meters (600 ft) up when the plane stalled and plunged downward. The devastating impact knocked them both unconscious. A man who rescued Betty from the wreckage, upon seeing her bloodied and mangled body, assumed she was dead. He placed her in the trunk of his car and took her to a nursing home, leaving her with the undertaker. Fortunately, the undertaker realized she was still alive and rushed her to the emergency room.
Betty spent 11 weeks drifting in and out of consciousness in the hospital. Surgeons worked to repair her severely damaged left leg, inserting a rod and pins to stabilize it. The medical staff feared Betty might never walk again, and the press declared her running career over. Her left leg became half an inch shorter than the right, and she was confined to a wheelchair for four months. It was a devastating blow to Betty, who had hoped to defend her 100-meter title at the 1932 Los Angeles Olympics.
However, driven by sheer willpower, Betty began the long and painful process of relearning how to walk and run. By 1934, she was back in training. Although she missed the LA Games, she was determined to compete in Berlin as part of the 4×100 relay team. Due to her shortened leg, she could not start in the crouch position and was instead allowed to start standing. Betty ran the third leg, and as the favored German team fumbled and dropped their baton, the Americans surged ahead, giving Betty Robinson an unexpected second Olympic gold. The International Olympic Committee hailed her comeback as 'one of the most remarkable in the annals of the Games.'
Betty retired from competitive athletics shortly after and married Richard Schwartz in 1939. She continued to contribute to the world of sports by coaching and delivering speeches to athletic organizations across the United States. Elizabeth Robinson Schwartz passed away in 1999, having faded from the public's memory as a forgotten Olympic heroine.
2. Art As Sport
There was a time when the Olympics rewarded artistic achievements as well as athletic ones. Pierre de Coubertin, the founder of the modern Games, envisioned the Olympics as a celebration of both physical prowess and aesthetic beauty. From 1912 to 1948, medals were awarded in five categories: architecture, painting, sculpture, literature, and music. Each entry had to be related to sports—paintings could depict athletes in motion, while musical works could honor a sport or athlete. In 1936, the German Art Committee proposed adding a category for Works for the Screen, but de Coubertin declined, fearing it would become a platform for propaganda films.
At the 1936 Berlin Games, Germany took control of the art competition jury, leveraging their home advantage to make up for their underwhelming performance in previous Olympics, where they only earned one medal. The Germans dominated the event, winning five out of the nine medals awarded. German musicians swept the Musical Composition Solo and Chorus categories. The only American to win a medal was Charles Downing Lay, whose architectural design for “Marine Park in Brooklyn” earned him recognition.
Initially, the public showed little interest in the art competition. However, thanks to a surge of propaganda, 70,000 people visited the exhibition, making it one of the most successful Olympic art contests. It's unclear how much money the Nazis earned from selling the artworks, as transactions were reported to have been handled “without the usual formalities.” On a positive note for de Coubertin, the award-winning musical compositions were performed by the Berlin Philharmonic at a special concert at the Games' conclusion.
The Olympics' art competition eventually came to an end due to the amateurism clause. The quality of submissions consistently failed to meet the standards of the jury, leading to a practice of withholding medals and declaring no winners. After the 1948 London Olympics, the art competition was discontinued.
1. Leni Riefenstahl’s Olympia
The 1936 Olympic Games were immortalized on film, employing groundbreaking filmmaking techniques that would change cinema forever. The iconic masterpiece was Olympia, directed by Leni Riefenstahl. Unlike her previous work Triumph of the Will, which heavily celebrated Nazi power, Riefenstahl’s portrayal of athletes in Olympia was one of universal excellence, transcending race and nationality. Along with the visual spectacle, she highlighted the elegance of the human body, using innovative camera techniques that had never been attempted before.
Riefenstahl was a pioneer in using a moving camera to capture dynamic shots in a documentary. She had her crew glide on roller skates to shoot footage while constructing a track for the camera to follow sprinters. To film the pole vault against the backdrop of the sky, she dug a pit, and she designed a custom 600-mm telephoto lens for close-up shots. A balloon with a small 5-mm camera provided aerial footage, while an underwater camera adjusted its speed and focus to match the rhythm of the diving events.
Riefenstahl meticulously edited the footage for maximum dramatic effect. Transitions between events were seamless, and close-ups of marathon runners highlighted their physical strain and determination to push forward. These were balanced by crowd reaction shots, with synchronized music enhancing the athletes’ movements, giving them an almost choreographed quality. At a time when syncing sound to film was an arduous task, Riefenstahl executed it with astounding precision, stunning audiences. It was a revolutionary approach to documentary filmmaking, blending editing and sound.
The question of whether Olympia was overt propaganda remains controversial. On one hand, Goebbels’ involvement with the film is undeniable. However, Riefenstahl showcased African American athletes like Jesse Owens and Ralph Metcalf, whose successes ran counter to Hitler’s ideology. She also didn’t shy away from depicting German defeats. Ultimately, Riefenstahl left any overtly Nazi footage on the cutting room floor, but the Nazis used the film’s uplifting and motivational tone to reflect their own regime.
Olympia triumphed at the 1938 International Film Festival in Venice, taking home the top award and surpassing Disney's Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs. Disney himself was the only major Hollywood executive to extend a welcoming hand to Riefenstahl, even after the chaos of Kristallnacht. Olympia's exceptional cinematography continues to mesmerize audiences, even to this day.
The Muslim Women Who Refused to Bow to Hitler
Halet Cambel symbolized the modern Turkish woman of the 1930s, reflecting the transformation of Turkey into a secular republic under Mustafa Kemal Ataturk. This era marked significant advancements for women, who gained equal rights and opportunities to those of men.
Born in Berlin to a family with strong ties to Kemal, Cambel was a fragile child, suffering from both typhoid and hepatitis. She eventually regained her strength through physical training. Fascinated by tales of knights, she took up fencing under a Russian instructor. In 1924, she returned to Istanbul to study archaeology, but it was her fencing skills that earned her a spot on the 1936 Turkish Olympic team alongside Suat Fetgeri Aseni Tari, marking them as the first Turkish women to compete at the Olympics. Although Cambel was repulsed by Nazi ideology and reluctant to attend, the Turkish government encouraged her participation. Her contempt for Hitler grew stronger when she witnessed his furious reaction to Jesse Owens's victory.
Although Cambel and Tari did not secure any medals, their defiance of Hitler has ensured their place in history. Cambel vividly remembered the moment: 'The German official assigned to us asked us to meet Hitler. Honestly, we would not have come to Germany at all had it been our choice, as we strongly disapproved of Hitler's regime. We told her we would never have come to Berlin had our government not insisted. When the official suggested we introduce ourselves to Hitler, we firmly declined her invitation.'
After the Olympics, Halet Cambel embraced a career as an archaeologist.
