Buzz
Humans are incredibly fortunate. The astonishing, yet still largely enigmatic, complexity of the human brain has bestowed upon us the abilities of speech, language, and the capacity for creative and abstract thinking. Over millennia, our intellect has allowed us to develop tools, technology, art, science, and society, culminating in the creation of civilization. Today, we possess a rich legacy of intellectual achievements in which we can all take pride. Here, I present ten works of exceptional brilliance, with no particular order of importance.
10 The Works of William Shakespeare
There are those who claim that the Immortal Bard did not write the 39 plays attributed to him, arguing a lack of formal education and unfamiliarity with the source material. However, the evidence supporting this is weak, and the world at large regards Shakespeare as the greatest playwright to have ever existed. His works transcend mere storytelling—his greatest plays dissect life and death, love and hate, revenge and forgiveness, good and evil. Long before Freud and Jung, Shakespeare explored human psychology, presenting it through comedy, tragedy, and historical drama, all conveyed in a language of extraordinary power and poetry. Were the list longer, we would also have to consider Miguel de Cervantes in the same rank for his monumental contributions to literature.
9 Paradise Lost
Together with William Shakespeare, John Milton is considered one of the towering figures in English literature. However, his legacy is predominantly defined by his magnum opus, the monumental epic poem ‘Paradise Lost,’ which has given rise to an entire field of academic study. Drawing upon his extensive and profound understanding of language, the Bible, Greek and Roman mythology, and ancient literature, Milton crafted one of the most enduring masterpieces in the English language. Rooted in the Book of Genesis, ‘Paradise Lost’ explores Lucifer’s rebellion and his expulsion from heaven, the creation of the world, and the fall of mankind. Majestic in tone, noble, and imbued with darkness, the poem takes readers on a powerful journey through heaven, hell, and the newly-formed Earth with its Garden of Eden—paradise lost by Adam and Eve. Though written in English, Milton’s syntax mirrors that of Latin, which can make it challenging to read. Yet, once the reader becomes accustomed to the style, they are rewarded with an unparalleled literary vision. Remarkably, Milton, completely blind, composed the entire epic (over 10,000 lines) in his mind between 1658 and 1664, dictating it to his daughters.
8 Philosophy of Aristotle
Aristotle was a student of Plato and the teacher of Alexander the Great. He was an unparalleled scientist, accomplishing more than anyone before him in bringing together the fragmented truths of previous philosophers. He introduced the concept of the four causes (formal, material, efficient, and final)—two of which remain integral to modern scientific methodology. He also developed the ideas of act and potency, and was the first to systematize the operations of the intellect and establish rules for correct thinking and reasoning. His influence spread not only to Christianity through St. Thomas Aquinas but also to the Islamic world through Averroes.
7 Elements
The second oldest work on this list (written 300 years before Christ’s birth), Euclid’s ‘Elements’ represents the first rigorous examination of geometry, building upon earlier, less structured texts. Starting with just ten axioms (statements that cannot be simplified), Euclid defines basic concepts such as points, lines, two- and three-dimensional spaces, and the mathematical entities within them. The clarity of Euclid’s prose and the precision of his logical proofs ensured that ‘Elements’ remained a core text on geometry up until the nineteenth century, when more refined definitions and non-Euclidean geometries emerged. Even over two millennia after its composition, Euclid’s work continued to inspire figures like Abraham Lincoln, Edna St. Vincent Millay, and Albert Einstein.
6 Infinitesimal Calculus
The development of differential and integral calculus occurred independently through two men whose personalities couldn’t have been more contrasting: Isaac Newton, who was private, intense, and averse to socializing, often neglecting basic needs like grooming and eating in favor of his work, and Gottfried Leibniz, who was charming, well-dressed, and widely admired in German intellectual circles. The conflict between Newton and Leibniz arose over the question of who first discovered calculus. Leibniz applied integral calculus in 1675, though he didn’t publish his work until 1684. Newton, who had developed both differential and integral calculus as early as 1666 in his work on gravitation, delayed publication until 1693. Leibniz’s eventual publication, coupled with the encouragement of his colleagues, pushed Newton to release his own results hastily. While their initial exchange was somewhat amicable, it soon turned hostile, a situation exacerbated by the involvement of their respective supporters. Today, both men are acknowledged for the invention of calculus, a fundamental tool for advanced engineering and physics, while their dispute remains a subject of historical analysis.
5 Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy
Although Newton had to share credit for the development of calculus with Leibniz, he can certainly claim the discovery of the theory of gravity. In his groundbreaking work ‘Principia’ (published in 1687), Newton introduced the law of universal gravitation. By utilizing classical geometry alongside the method of ‘fluxions’ and ‘fluents’ (now known as differential and integral calculus), Newton was able to explain not only the falling apple but also the trajectories of projectiles, the orbits of celestial bodies, and the motions of stars. With ‘Principia’, physics made a monumental leap. As Alexander Pope famously wrote, ‘Nature and nature’s laws lay hid in night; God said “Let Newton be” and all was light.’
4 Quantum Mechanics
Unlike relativity theory (entry 2), which originated from the mind of a single individual, quantum mechanics was shaped by contributions from a long list of eminent physicists, many of whom have since become household names: Rutherford, Bohr, Planck, Schrödinger, Pauli, Heisenberg, Dirac, Feynman, Gell-Mann, and others. Einstein, though initially involved, eventually became disenchanted with the strange and counterintuitive nature of quantum mechanics. The development of quantum mechanics was a drawn-out process, marked by intense debates and disagreements, and it took decades to achieve its current form. Yet, despite its successes, the boundaries of quantum mechanics continue to expand as scientists probe deeper into the fundamental nature of matter using particle accelerators and powerful new theories.
3. The Ring Cycle
Richard Wagner was a composer of immense genius, but his life was marred by questionable character, revolutionary fervor, nationalist fervor, and troubling racist views. Despite producing a relatively small body of work, Wagner's impact on the world of music and art was profound. Without Wagner, the opera and cinema as we know them today may never have developed. Countless composers, artists, and writers have drawn inspiration from his work, particularly his monumental ‘Ring Cycle,’ a four-opera series that tells a single epic story. Drawing heavily from Germanic, Scandinavian, and Icelandic mythology, Wagner spent 25 years crafting the Ring Cycle, traveling across Europe conducting, advocating for his artistic vision, evading creditors, and entangled in various scandals. By 1876, the complete cycle was ready for its world debut, although ‘Das Rheingold’ and ‘Die Walküre’ had already been performed for King Ludwig II of Bavaria, which displeased Wagner. The premiere took place in a theater Wagner had built in Bayreuth with the financial support of King Ludwig II. It was attended by royalty, composers, and intellectuals from around the world, including Emperor Pedro II of Brazil. The audience was treated to 15 hours of extraordinary music spread over four days, each note more complex and grandiose than the last. To this day, staging the entire Ring Cycle remains the pinnacle of operatic achievement, testing the limits of performers, musicians, designers, and directors. Above is one of the most famous pieces from the Ring Cycle.
2 Relativity Theory
Much like Newton before him, Albert Einstein was seen as an outsider. Frequently puzzled and often disheartened by the complexities of human society, he saw the mysteries of nature as the greatest challenges one could encounter. With little concern for worldly matters, Einstein's brilliance elevated science to extraordinary levels. Any one of the groundbreaking papers he published in 1905—his ‘miracle year’—could have earned him the Nobel Prize. Ultimately, it was his work on the photoelectric effect that brought him the honor, but it was his theories of special relativity (and later general relativity in 1915) that would cement his legacy as the greatest physicist since Newton and one of the greatest intellectuals in history. To transform our understanding of concepts like matter, gravity, mass, and energy, Einstein combined fields of mathematics such as differential geometry, tensor analysis, and electromagnetic theory (the stories of his poor math skills are complete myths). When asked by a journalist where his laboratory was, Einstein simply responded, “here,” holding up his fountain pen.
1. Evolutionary Theory
One of the most controversial scientific theories, evolution sparks more intense debates and resentment between its supporters and opponents than any other. However, let's clear up a few misconceptions. Darwin never claimed that humans evolved directly from apes; instead, both species share a common ancestor. Also, ‘On the Origin of Species’ (published in 1859) touches on human evolution only briefly. This was because Darwin was cautious about the backlash (as the earlier book ‘Vestiges of Creation’ in 1844 had caused a stir), and there wasn’t enough evidence at the time to offer a comprehensive study of human evolution. Nevertheless, Darwin’s work triggered a revolutionary shift in thought, forever changing how humanity perceives both the natural world and its place within it. As for Darwin's personal beliefs, over time, they shifted significantly. By 1859, he regarded all religions as equally valid, while he became increasingly critical of the Biblical account of creation. The death of his daughter Anne in 1851 at the age of 10 also played a pivotal role in his loss of faith, leading him to stop attending church (although he never fully embraced atheism). In the same way that Einstein transformed physics, Charles Darwin immortalized himself and earned both fame and criticism for his contributions to biology.
