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Sabine Hossenfelder may not be a widely recognized figure, but a recent article of hers has sparked considerable controversy among some scientific experts. In her piece, published in the New Scientist magazine, the journalist and theoretical physicist argues against the allocation of vast sums of money for a new particle collider. CERN has proposed the construction of a €21 billion supercollider, a project that Hossenfelder believes fails to justify its enormous cost.
The article has divided opinions within the field of theoretical and particle physics. While many support Hossenfelder’s thoughtful analysis, others contend that investment is crucial for the advancement of cutting-edge technology; without new avenues of research, progress will stagnate.
It remains uncertain whether the high-priced supercollider will actually be built. However, as this forward-thinking debate unfolds, we must not overlook the current progress. The Large Hadron Collider, CERN’s flagship project, opened just a decade ago. Since then, we’ve seen monumental discoveries like gravitational waves, the Higgs boson, and various quantum mechanical phenomena.
These extraordinary advancements have been made possible through a range of advanced technologies. Below are some of the remarkable engineering feats that have played a pivotal role in transforming our understanding of the universe.
10. Dark Energy Camera
What exactly is dark energy? The short answer is that it remains an enigma. Essentially, dark energy is thought to be the opposite of gravity, exerting a repulsive force that accelerates the expansion of the universe. This mysterious energy is believed to constitute about two-thirds of the universe's total mass-energy, with the remainder mostly composed of dark matter.
Despite its mystery, dark energy may not remain an unsolved puzzle for much longer. A team of researchers at the Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory is studying dark energy to gain a deeper understanding of the universe's fundamental nature. Located in the Chilean Andes, their Dark Energy Camera (DECam) captures ultra-high-definition images of the cosmos. It ranks among the most advanced digital cameras in the world.
The development of DECam took over a decade of design and testing by scientists from six different countries. The project has mapped out about an eighth of the sky in stunning detail and has cataloged 300 million galaxies. Experts are now working to analyze the collected data.
9. Einstein Tower
As striking as it is scientifically essential, the Einstein Tower in Potsdam, Germany, has been observing the Sun for nearly a century. The observatory opened in the 1920s with the purpose of confirming Einstein's newly published theory of relativity. The tower houses a unique type of telescope, fixed and vertical, designed to measure spectral shifts in sunlight.
Even more unusual than the theory it was created to test is the building itself. The Einstein Tower is a famous example of expressionist architecture, which propelled its architect, Erich Mendelsohn, to fame. Unlike the typical functional exteriors of observatories, Mendelsohn's vision was distinctly avant-garde.
The result of this unconventional architectural approach is a curvaceous, futuristic structure that rises from the German landscape. Albert Einstein, the tower's namesake, is said to have disapproved of the bold design.
8. Stonehenge
Though it may seem like an ancient artifact by today’s standards, Stonehenge was cutting-edge technology when it was constructed around 5,000 years ago on Salisbury Plain. Historical evidence strongly suggests that the stone circle served as an early astronomical observatory, allowing ancient people to track celestial phenomena.
Some even propose that the creators of Stonehenge might have applied Pythagoras’s theorem, nearly two thousand years before the Greek philosopher was born. The original site is thought to have been encircled by 56 wooden posts, used by early astronomers to calculate solar and lunar eclipse cycles.
7. Pierre Auger Observatory
The field of cosmology is overflowing with enigmas. How did the universe come into existence? What is it made of? What is responsible for its peculiar expansion?
One such enigma is cosmic rays. Earth is constantly bombarded by a stream of high-energy particles racing toward our planet at nearly the speed of light. This onslaught of subatomic particles is known as cosmic rays. The lower-energy rays are believed to originate from stars that have met their end in our Milky Way galaxy. However, much less is understood about the higher-energy rays, which are thought to come from distant galaxies, with their precise source remaining a mystery to scientists for decades.
Cosmic rays are also extremely scarce. On average, only one high-energy particle will hit a square kilometer (0.39 mi) every century. To address this challenge, scientists have built a massive detector that spans miles across Argentina. The Pierre Auger Observatory covers an area of around 3,000 square kilometers (1,200 mi)—about 30 times the size of Paris. Finished in 2008, this observatory captures cosmic rays after they have interacted with the atmosphere, causing a cascade of secondary particles to rain down to Earth.
6. Lovell Telescope
In a quiet village in central England, the famous Lovell Telescope has spent over six decades exploring the universe. Located at the Jodrell Bank Observatory, operated by the University of Manchester, this telescope is one of the most powerful radio telescopes ever constructed.
The telescope’s most striking feature is its enormous, fully steerable white dish, measuring 76 meters (250 ft) in diameter. Suspended between two motorized towers, this giant dish functions as a massive satellite receiver, collecting and focusing radio waves from the heavens, which are then converted into electrical signals for analysis.
Even after more than 50 years since its construction, Lovell remains the third largest of its kind and continues to be a cornerstone in advancing our knowledge of astronomy. The concepts being investigated by Lovell today were nearly unthinkable when it was first launched.
5. Super-Kamiokande
Neutrinos have been central to many groundbreaking scientific discoveries in recent times. These tiny subatomic particles are believed to be among the most plentiful in the universe, yet one of the hardest to detect. In 2015, Takaaki Kajita and Arthur B. McDonald were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for proving that neutrinos alter their fundamental properties during their travel.
This change implies that neutrinos must have mass, challenging the long-standing theory that they were massless. As a result, particle physicists must reconsider their understanding of the very nature of matter, likely leading to significant revisions in several scientific theories.
Kajita’s revolutionary discovery was only made possible by the Super-Kamiokande (shown above), a massive underground detector tank containing 50,000 tons of water. As neutrinos race through the tank, most pass through without leaving any sign, but a few trigger brilliant flashes of Cherenkov light (the optical equivalent of a sonic boom). By studying these flashes, scientists can investigate the very nature of the neutrinos themselves.
4. Hubble Telescope
Orbiting 547 kilometers (340 mi) above Earth, the Hubble Space Telescope is hailed by NASA as the most significant leap in astronomy since Galileo unveiled his telescope in 1610. When Hubble was launched and deployed in April 1990, the idea of a permanent telescope outside of Earth’s atmosphere was considered groundbreaking. Nearly 30 years later, its technology remains on the frontier of modern science.
Unlike traditional telescopes that are hindered by Earth’s thick, distortive atmosphere, Hubble surveys the cosmos without such obstructions. Its advanced cameras can capture astronomical events with a level of clarity and precision unmatched by any ground-based observatory.
The continuous stream of data flowing back from Hubble has completely reshaped our perception of the universe. On average, approximately 150 scientific papers daily reference Hubble data in some capacity. The telescope has allowed astronomers to delve deeply into a variety of subjects, from supermassive black holes to dark energy. This is a monumental achievement, especially considering the satellite is no larger than a typical bus.
3. International Space Station
Measuring about the size of a football field, the International Space Station (ISS) stands as the largest man-made structure ever placed into space. Since November 2000, it has been home to a rotating crew of over 200 individuals from 18 different nations. In one day, the ISS covers the distance equivalent to traveling to the Moon and back.
The ISS hosts a variety of research projects across many fields. One mission saw the crew studying flames in microgravity by burning small, spherical fuel droplets. Another project involved growing large protein crystals for medical research purposes.
In addition, the ISS is equipped with a highly sensitive particle detector called the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS). Unlike the Pierre Auger Observatory, this device is capable of measuring cosmic rays before they fragment upon entering the atmosphere. The data collected by the AMS could offer cosmologists new insights into the origins of cosmic radiation, as well as provide support for various theories about dark matter’s composition.
2. LIGO
Gravitational waves are ripples in the fabric of space-time, generated by the movement of high-energy interstellar bodies. These waves propagate outward from accelerating objects, much like ripples spreading across water. The largest waves are produced by cataclysmic events such as supernovae or the collision of two black holes. It is even believed that traces of gravitational radiation remain from the very moment the universe was born.
The concept of these cosmic ripples was first proposed by Albert Einstein in 1916 as part of his general theory of relativity. However, it wasn’t until 1974 that their existence was confirmed. To detect the first gravitational wave, researchers at the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO) in Louisiana had to develop a precision instrument known as an interferometer. This device measures minuscule shifts in position by comparing two nearly identical beams of light.
Although interferometer technology has been around since the late 1800s, the ones used by LIGO are the most sensitive ever constructed. These twin detectors are housed in two 4-kilometer (2.5 mi) steel vacuum tubes and are capable of detecting fluctuations that are thousands of times smaller than the size of a proton.
The first gravitational waves detected by LIGO originated from the collision of two black holes nearly 1.3 billion years ago. This groundbreaking discovery earned three of LIGO’s researchers the 2017 Nobel Prize in Physics, along with widespread recognition from both the media and the scientific community.
1. Large Hadron Collider
CERN's Large Hadron Collider (LHC) currently holds the title of the most powerful particle accelerator ever created—though, as mentioned at the beginning of this article, there are ongoing discussions about building one nearly four times larger.
Within its 27-kilometer (17 mi) magnetic ring, two beams of particles are accelerated to nearly the speed of light. Since 2009, scientists in Geneva have been colliding subatomic particles, and in 2012, just a few years into operation, they made international headlines by confirming the existence of the Higgs boson.
Initially, there was hope that the LHC could provide insights into string theory and dark matter. However, as time has passed with no supporting evidence, this seems increasingly unlikely.
To preserve the ring's magnetism, coils made of superconducting cable must be kept extremely cold using liquid nitrogen, maintaining a temperature of minus 271.3 degrees Celsius (–456.3 °F). At such extremely low temperatures, the cable can conduct electricity flawlessly, without any loss of energy.
