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Religion is a peculiar concept. Since deities rarely, if ever, reveal themselves in our modern lives, understanding their desires can be incredibly challenging. Throughout history, the most common way to appease these divine beings was by presenting them with precious offerings. These could range from expensive gemstones and gold artifacts to livestock. However, there were times when even these lavish gifts failed to secure their favor.
It’s no surprise that the ultimate offering to the gods was human life. While many ancient accounts of human sacrifice, such as Caesar’s tales of Druids burning victims in giant wicker effigies, may sound exaggerated, archaeological evidence confirms that such practices were indeed a grim reality.
Below are ten instances of human sacrifice documented from ancient civilizations.
10. Inca Mummies
In 1999, three children's bodies were found in a high-altitude chamber in the Andes. Though long deceased, they appeared as if they had merely drifted into sleep. These remains are hailed as some of the world’s most impeccably preserved mummies, offering invaluable insights into the Inca empire’s rituals of human sacrifice.
Historical accounts of Inca religion detail how Capacocha ceremonies frequently included human sacrifices. Children, particularly those deemed physically flawless, were selected from their families and subjected to purification rites in the Inca capital. Subsequently, they were transported to mountainous sites, where they were either left to perish or killed through violent means.
The Llullaillaco children’s remains indicate they were well-nourished and cared for prior to their sacrifice. The frigid, arid climate preserved even their internal organs, revealing a diet rich in protein, along with significant consumption of alcohol and coca leaves. Evidence suggests the children were sedated before being entombed, ultimately succumbing to the extreme cold.
9. Egyptian Retainer Sacrifices
Egyptian mummies are arguably the most renowned globally. In Egyptian religion, they played a crucial practical role. The Egyptians believed in an afterlife and a soul, known as the ka, but death wasn’t as simple as the soul departing the body. The ka required a preserved body to return to, making mummification essential for the soul’s eternal well-being.
To ensure their souls were tended to in the afterlife, individuals might sacrifice their servants and retainers upon their death. The tomb of King Aha, the first ruler of Egypt’s initial dynasty who died around 3000 BC, is encircled by the graves of court officials who were killed to accompany him into eternity. His successor, Pharaoh Djer, had 200 individuals buried alongside him. Since all graves were sealed simultaneously, it’s improbable they coincidentally perished with their king. Many of those sacrificed with Djer were women, likely his wives and concubines.
The practice of human sacrifice in Egypt seems to have ceased after the first dynasty. Instead, figurines known as shabti or ushabti were placed in tombs to serve the deceased in the afterlife.
8. Carthaginian Infants
The Carthaginians were the Roman Republic’s fiercest adversaries. The Punic Wars, spanning from 264 BC to 146 BC, featured massive military campaigns across regions from Spain to Sicily and into Italy. Ultimately, Rome emerged victorious, annihilating Carthage completely. With little left of Carthaginian culture, historians relied on accounts from their Roman conquerors, who depicted the Carthaginians as engaging in large-scale infant sacrifices.
For years, these claims were dismissed as Roman propaganda. However, archaeologists discovered extensive burial grounds, known as tophets, containing numerous infant skeletons. Were these merely cemeteries for children who succumbed to the perils of childbirth, or evidence of ritual sacrifices?
This scenario seems improbable. The infants’ remains were discovered in urns following cremation. Grave markers above the sites expressed gratitude to the deities, with inscriptions like “the gods heard and blessed me.” The ages of the children indicated they had survived the most vulnerable phase of infancy. These infants were likely offered to the gods as their parents’ most cherished possessions.
7. Minoan Sacrifices
Determining the cause of death in ancient times is often challenging. Was it an accident or a violent act? Skeletal remains alone may not provide conclusive answers. Archaeological context is crucial, but it frequently relies on interpretation, leading to debates over the accuracy of such conclusions.
The Minoan civilization thrived from approximately 2000 BC to 1450 BC. Its impressive ruins feature palaces adorned with intricate paintings. Evidence of human sacrifice was scarce until a discovery at Anemosphilia, where three bodies were found in a temple ruin, seemingly crushed during a sudden earthquake.
Among the remains was a young man who appeared to have died on a large stone, possibly an altar. His feet were tied, and a bronze dagger was found near his bones. Also present were an older man, likely a priest, and a woman wearing an iron ornament. Since this predates the Iron Age, the iron was likely sourced from a meteorite.
While not all archaeologists concur with the interpretation of the findings at this site, the possibility of human sacrifice remains a plausible explanation.
6. Ancient Chinese Human Sacrifice
Our understanding of ancient Chinese rituals during the Shang dynasty (1600–1046 BC) comes from an unexpected source: thousands of oracle bones unearthed at various sites. These bones and turtle shells bear inscribed questions and were heated to produce cracks, which were then interpreted as divine answers.
In one instance, a fragment of a human skull was used for divination, hinting at potential human sacrifice. Additionally, texts preserved on these bones explicitly describe such practices. One bone asks, “Should one thousand cattle and one thousand humans be sacrificed?” Another records the sacrifice of 9,000 individuals.
Two primary forms of human sacrifice are evident from the oracle bones. The first involves the mass execution of servants and slaves upon a ruler’s death, who were either forced or volunteered to accompany them into the afterlife. The second entails sacrificing prisoners of war to appease the gods and alleviate famine.
5. Ur Sacrifices
Ur, a prominent city in Mesopotamia, thrived during the 3rd millennium BC and housed a massive ziggurat dedicated to the deity Nanna. The royal tombs of Ur yielded some of the most extraordinary archaeological discoveries of the 20th century, showcasing treasures of gold, ivory, and lapis lazuli that highlighted the city’s wealth. These graves also provided evidence of human sacrifice.
Queen Puabi’s tomb contained 52 bodies buried alongside her, likely attendants she was believed to require in the afterlife. Analysis of the sacrificial victims revealed their bodies were heated and treated with mercury vapors for preservation. Initially, it was speculated they had been poisoned before burial.
However, recent reconstructions of the victims’ skulls indicate holes were made in their brains while they were still alive, suggesting they were killed using a sharp stake or pike.
4. Germany’s Stonehenge
In Pömmelte, Germany, a site of immense importance to ancient inhabitants once stood. Seven large concentric earthen banks were built, with massive wooden posts embedded in the ground. The entrances were aligned with the sun’s position on specific days of the year. From 2300 BC, the site was meticulously maintained, but by 2050 BC, it was abandoned. The wooden posts were burned, and their ashes buried in the holes they once occupied.
Artifacts discovered at the site, such as stone axes and fragmented bones, hint at ritual activities. However, one pit contained the remains of ten women and children, not animals. Unlike nearby graves where bodies were neatly arranged, these remains were haphazardly piled together, showing signs of violent treatment. At least one individual was buried with her hands bound.
3. Bog Bodies
Bog bodies are a form of accidental mummification. Deposited in oxygen-deprived bogs, these bodies avoided decay, with the water’s chemicals preserving their skin. Found across Europe, some are so well-preserved that they resemble modern murder victims, often having met violent ends.
Many bog bodies were discovered with the tools of their demise still present. Tollund Man, for instance, had a braided animal-hide rope around his neck, used to strangle him. Others were killed with woolen cords. The exceptional preservation even allows researchers to identify the lavish meals they consumed before death. These were not neglected victims; some were pinned down with sticks to prevent them from resurfacing.
Many bog bodies are believed to have been high-status individuals, evidenced by the valuable items buried with them. Some scholars, particularly in Ireland, interpret these remains as belonging to kings sacrificed by their people. The king, seen as possessing supreme power, was held accountable when misfortune befell the community. One Irish bog body was found with its nipples removed, a significant act since sucking the king’s nipple symbolized submission, and their removal signified the end of his reign.
2. Bronze Age Turkey
At Başur Höyük in southeastern Turkey, a stone-lined tomb dating back to around 3000 BC reveals a puzzling tale of human sacrifice. The tomb contained the remains of one adult and two children, while a separate chamber at their feet held the bones of eight young individuals.
Deciphering the relationship between these individuals is challenging. Those inside the tomb were buried with minimal grave goods or adornments, while those outside were dressed in intricately beaded and decorated fabrics. Large bronze pins were found on at least one of the external bodies. Evidence of sharp-force trauma, such as stabbing and slashing marks on bones, suggests a violent death. If these were sacrifices, the process was far from gentle.
Current theories propose this was a case of retainer sacrifice, where the victims were servants. Their elaborate attire increased their perceived value as offerings for those interred in the tomb.
1. Sacred Cenote
The Maya and Aztec civilizations are often linked to the practice of human sacrifice. Aztec pyramids were notorious for being drenched in blood as victims had their hearts removed and their bodies tossed down the steps. However, other sacrificial methods were also employed.
Cenotes, natural limestone sinkholes, served as vital water sources in Mexico. These mystical underground pools, both haunting and captivating, became central to religious ceremonies. Archaeologists exploring these sites have uncovered jewels, statues, and ceramics deliberately placed in the waters. Additionally, they have discovered numerous human remains.
Diego de Landa, the 17th-century Catholic archbishop of Yucatan, claimed to have seen living victims thrown into the cenote. However, studies of the recovered bodies indicate that some were already deceased before being offered to the cenote.
