Buzz
Skepticism is a valuable tool for promoting critical thinking, yet many people prefer to believe in extraordinary claims, especially those related to life beyond death.
Many are drawn to the idea of life after death, not only for religious reasons but also to ease the fear of our mortality. This vulnerability often makes us easy targets for fraudsters promising comforting lies—usually for a high price.
Fraudsters often target other paranormal and scientific claims as well. Yet, these claims often face fierce opposition. Here are 10 notable skeptics and their attempts to expose these deceptions.
10. Milbourne Christopher - Debunking Psychics and ESP
Milbourne Christopher was a highly influential American magician in the 20th century and even held the position of president of the American Society of Magicians. He also had the honor of performing for Franklin Roosevelt during the Great Depression.
Beyond his work with magical illusions, Christopher was a well-known author, writing 24 books about magic and magicians, including a biography of his idol, Harry Houdini. However, like many magicians, he also spent part of his career debunking frauds, particularly those claiming psychic abilities.
He gained fame as a skeptic when he publicly exposed Uri Geller and other self-proclaimed psychics as frauds, using magic tricks to deceive their followers. The details of his investigation were published in his 1975 book Mediums, Mystics and the Occult.
Christopher’s work on psychics and skepticism generally avoided attacking specific individuals. Instead, he approached the topic in a more intellectual and scholarly manner, offering a broader analysis of the phenomenon.
One of the most notorious cases was the Enfield poltergeist, an alleged supernatural phenomenon affecting two young sisters in England. After investigating the events, Christopher concluded that it was actually the work of 'a little girl who wanted to cause trouble and was very, very clever.'
9. Tony Cornell - Debunking ‘Paranormal’ Claims
Tony Cornell was a British parapsychologist who devoted over 50 years to studying ‘paranormal’ phenomena. As a member and president of the Cambridge University Society for Psychical Research, he investigated ghosts, hauntings, and similar events, concluding that these phenomena were often caused by the people experiencing them, usually unconsciously.
In the 1980s, Cornell, along with Alan Gauld and Howard Wilkinson, created a device known as the SPIDER (Spontaneous Psychological Incident Recorder) to track supposed ‘paranormal’ occurrences. Cornell estimated that only 20 percent of the nearly 800 investigations he conducted were hard to explain, with the vast majority showing no evidence of ‘paranormal’ activity.
One of his most peculiar experiments occurred in 1959 when he disguised himself as a ghost and crossed in front of a movie theater screen. When the audience was questioned afterward, 32 percent claimed they had not noticed him.
8. Joseph Dunninger - Debunking Mediums
Joseph Dunninger was a highly renowned American magician in the 20th century, with a voice so famous it was said to be ‘more recognizable than that of the president.’ He was also a pioneer in the radio and television industry, appearing in these mediums long before many other magicians considered it.
However, Dunninger had a strong aversion to frauds, particularly mediums, and dedicated much of his time to exposing their deceptive methods. While he generally refrained from criticizing spiritualism itself, he was particularly focused on revealing those who took advantage of vulnerable people, especially in the aftermath of World War I.
Having attended over 1,000 seances, he also offered a standing $10,000 reward to any medium who could reveal the secret messages left for him by Thomas Edison, Harry Houdini, and Sir Arthur Conan Doyle before they passed away. No one ever collected the prize.
7. Albert Moll - Hoax: Occultism and Mediums
Albert Moll, a German psychiatrist born in the 19th century, was a founding figure in modern sexology and an avid supporter of hypnotism. However, he is more widely known for his skepticism, especially towards the medium Maria Vollhardt. During a 1925 trial, Moll was accused of defamation after labeling Vollhardt's performances as 'trick,' 'manipulation,' and 'farce.'
Ultimately, Moll was acquitted and dedicated much of his life to exposing mediums and other occult practitioners. He authored several detailed works revealing the methods these practitioners used to deceive the public. However, he also recognized how rational individuals could be 'hypnotized' by the seances in which they sought answers.
6. Joseph Jastrow - Hoax: Occultism
Joseph Jastrow, an American psychologist, was well-known for his contributions to several fields, including optical illusions. His most famous example is the Jastrow illusion, where two identical objects appear to be different sizes depending on their relative positioning. He was also a prominent figure in anomalistic psychology, a scientific discipline focused on 'paranormal' phenomena, though it asserts that such phenomena do not exist.
Many of Jastrow's colleagues collaborated with him on research, particularly regarding notable figures like Spiritualist Sir Oliver Lodge and the so-called blind and deaf girl Willetta Higgins, who was later revealed to be neither completely blind nor deaf.
Jastrow expressed his frustration with frauds in a brief poem he wrote in 1945:
“There’s a sucker born every minute.” Barnum said it; there’s sad truth in it. What burns me up, and turns me sour Is that a crook is born every hour.
5. Carlos Maria de Heredia - Hoax: Spiritism
Carlos Maria de Heredia, also known as Father de Heredia, was a Jesuit priest and a passionate opponent of spiritism. While closely related, spiritism differs from spiritualism in that spiritualism holds that the dead can communicate with the living, while spiritism believes that humans are immortal beings who pass through various physical bodies to evolve and improve.
In addition to his religious work, Father de Heredia became a skilled magician, a talent that greatly supported his efforts to expose fraudulent practices, particularly those involving 'spirit hands.'
In a feature published in Popular Mechanics, Heredia meticulously described how spiritism practitioners fabricated so-called 'spirit hands'—waxy limbs that seemed to manifest from ghosts. Ultimately, he revealed that these were merely rubber gloves filled with water, coated in hot wax, and cooled, with the fraudster removing the internal contents to leave behind the 'spirit hand.'
Heredia was also highly skilled at debunking mediums. He staged a false seance for over 500 people, successfully deceiving many of them.
4. Martin Gardner - Hoax: Pseudoscience
Martin Gardner, a 20th-century American author, was celebrated for his contributions to science, mathematics, and his skeptical outlook. Over the course of his life, he authored more than 70 books, including his most famous work, Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science, a critical examination of various frauds disguised as legitimate science.
In 1976, Gardner—along with Carl Sagan, Isaac Asimov, and a few others—established the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal (now known as the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry). He frequently contributed to the group's bimonthly journal and was a regular columnist for Scientific American.
When discussing the importance of science in debunking pseudoscience, Gardner remarked: “Debunking bad science should be a constant obligation of the science community, even if it takes time away from serious research or seems to be a losing battle.”
3. Eric Dingwall - Hoax: Mediums
Eric Dingwall, a renowned British anthropologist of the 20th century, gained greater recognition for his efforts to expose fraudulent mediums than for his anthropological work.
In 1927, Dingwall released a book titled How to Go to a Medium, serving as a guide for would-be investigators keen on exposing fraud. The book included a “box of necessities,” which featured luminous pins (to track the medium’s position when the lights were off) and cotton thread (to detect any movement by the medium).
Dingwall preferred a quiet life, choosing to remain out of the public eye to preserve his anonymity while investigating mediums. This was in stark contrast to his rival Harry Price, who relished the attention.
A controversy arose regarding Dingwall's investigation into American medium Mina “Margery” Crandon. During his thorough examination, he was accused of inappropriate behavior, including instructing her to disrobe during their first meeting.
Crandon later claimed that this occurred on multiple occasions. This was perhaps due to Dingwall’s belief that a “spirit hand” allegedly produced by Crandon was hidden in her vagina the entire time.
2. David Abbott - Hoax: Mediums and Spirit Photography
American magician David Abbott was renowned for creating a variety of magic tricks, including the floating ball and the talking tea kettle. However, he was equally well known for his opposition to mediums. He authored several works, including Behind the Scenes with the Mediums, regarded as one of the finest books debunking mediums.
One of the most notorious frauds he exposed were the Bangs Sisters, a pair based in Chicago who claimed to summon spirits to paint portraits of deceased loved ones.
The Bangs Sisters charged $3–$4 per sitting (roughly $100 today) and had a loyal following among the grieving. Abbott uncovered their deceit during an investigation, revealing that the sealed envelope with the picture of the deceased was opened beforehand, and the duo painted the portrait the night before.
Their operation quickly collapsed, especially after magicians began performing the trick in public.
1. Chung Ling SooHoax: Mediums
Chung Ling Soo, the stage name adopted by American magician William Ellsworth Robinson, became a renowned illusionist by emulating a famous Chinese conjurer. In addition to his magic, he was a Spiritualist, and it was his belief in Spiritualism that inspired him to expose fraudulent mediums.
Robinson wrote Spirit Slate Writing and Kindred Phenomena, a book exploring the various methods mediums used, including slate writing. In this act, a supposed spirit would use a piece of chalk to write a message.
He is perhaps best remembered for his daring trick “Condemned to Death by the Boxers,” where his assistants, dressed as Chinese Boxers (not the boxing champion Mike Tyson, but the historical rebels), would appear to shoot him.
On March 23, 1918, tragedy struck when Soo failed to properly unload the gun, causing it to discharge a live round that struck him in the chest. His final words were, “Oh my God. Something’s happened. Lower the curtain.” It marked the first time Soo had spoken in English in public since adopting his Chinese persona.
