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Throughout history, early humans—and even some modern ones—have conjured up ideas about substances they were convinced existed, seeking to explain phenomena they had yet to comprehend. Although most of these ideas have been debunked, there are still a few who hold on to these beliefs with unwavering conviction. Here are 10 substances once thought to be real.
10. Odic Force
Baron Dr. Karl Ludwig Freiherr von Reichenbach, a 19th-century Prussian scientist, dedicated much of his life to studying a physical force called the odic force. Similar to the mystical Force from the Star Wars universe, the odic force, or simply od, was believed to have a light side and a dark side. It was also associated with other debunked theories like dowsing and feng shui.
Named after the Norse god Odin, it was believed to pervade the entire universe, emanating from almost every object that exists. Reichenbach conducted detailed “experiments” using magnets, wires, and crystals to test whether anyone could feel the odic force. Unfortunately, only certain individuals, called “sensitives” by the Baron, were able to sense the force, with Reichenbach himself not being one of the fortunate ones. Later investigations by other scientists disproved these claims. Curiously, the “sensitives” were also said to universally dislike the color yellow, for reasons unknown.
9. Miasma
A theory that emerged due to the deplorable sanitary conditions of medieval Europe, the idea of miasma was prevalent from ancient times until the development of germ theory in the 1800s. Miasma was believed to be a poisonous cloud of vapor, originating from decaying organic matter, and was thought to cause various severe illnesses. However, this theory didn’t explain how diseases could spread even in environments that didn’t have unpleasant odors.
The miasma theory was widely accepted and led to practices such as the use of flower-filled masks by doctors during the Great Plague of 1665. Though it was scientifically incorrect, the theory did encourage researchers to investigate decaying matter as a potential source of illness, eventually leading to the discovery of microbes, the true culprits. It also promoted better hygiene in hospitals, although it did not address the cleanliness of doctors' hands.
8. Polywater
At the peak of the Cold War, both US and Soviet scientists were constantly striving to outdo each other with the latest scientific breakthroughs. A notable incident occurred in 1966 when Soviet researchers announced the creation of a new type of water with a significantly higher density, viscosity, and boiling point than ordinary water. Caught off guard, American scientists rushed to replicate the Russian experiments, leading to an influx of polywater-related papers in scientific journals worldwide.
Much like ice-nine, the fictional form of water from Kurt Vonnegut’s 1963 novel Cat’s Cradle, some scientists feared that polywater could escape the confines of laboratories and quickly polymerize the entire water supply on Earth, causing a global catastrophe—an event some speculated could explain Venus’s demise. Ultimately, polywater was revealed to be a result of contamination from human sweat, specifically the sodium lactate found in sweat, introduced during the handling of the containers. Once better controls were implemented, polywater was debunked as a mere illusion.
7. Caloric
One of the most widely accepted ideas on this list, caloric was thought to be an unseen fluid that accounted for many of the effects observed when dealing with heat. It was believed to move from hot objects to cold ones, altering the properties of materials as the amount of caloric changed. Given how heat appeared to transfer between objects, and the changes in heat when gases were pressurized, the concept of heat as a fluid seemed almost self-evident. Moreover, numerous experiments seemed to validate the hypotheses derived from the theory.
Put forward by Antoine Lavoisier, the “Father of Modern Chemistry,” this theory was embraced throughout much of the 18th century and well into the first half of the 19th century before being superseded by the mechanical theory of heat. As early as 1798, as is typical in scientific progress, extensive efforts were made to challenge the caloric theory.
6. Poisonous Ptomaine
The only actual substance on this list, poisonous ptomaines are mentioned due to the mistaken belief that they were the primary cause of foodborne illnesses. Known as ptomaine poisoning, it was thought to be caused by amine compounds that formed in rotting organic matter, which had a particularly foul taste and odor. Isolated in the 18th century, scientists extracted these compounds through experiments where extracts from decaying meat were injected into animals' veins, often leading to the subject's death.
Based on these tests, scientists concluded that ptomaines were responsible for almost all foodborne illnesses, and this theory was widely accepted for decades. However, further investigation revealed some key facts: First, ptomaines didn't form until well after food would be deemed inedible by any reasonable person. Second, there was no evidence they were harmful when ingested—they had to be injected, which isn’t how most people typically consume food. With the discovery of bacteria, the idea of ptomaine poisoning was dismissed.
5. Luminiferous Aether
In the 19th century, as scientists were piecing together the puzzle of universal gravitation established by Sir Isaac Newton, an idea that had been proposed as early as Newton’s own time gained widespread acceptance as a solution. The luminiferous aether was thought to fill the universe, providing a medium through which light could travel across a vacuum, such as in space. Since sound required a medium to propagate, it was assumed light must also do the same.
As often happens when a theory is embraced prematurely, scientists began to find supposed evidence of the aether in every corner of their research. Observations like comet tails or Mercury’s orbital anomaly were considered proof of the aether and became staples in academic textbooks. In the late 1800s, two scientists—Albert A. Michelson and Edward W. Morley—designed the most meticulous experiment yet to confirm the aether’s existence. To their surprise, and to the astonishment of the broader scientific community, the results actually provided compelling evidence to refute the theory, which later became known as the first step toward Einstein’s theory of special relativity.
4. Elan Vital
Rather than a physical substance, the elan vital (French for “vital impulse”) was conceived by the French philosopher Henri Bergson as a force akin to the soul. He advocated for vitalism, a doctrine asserting that living beings possessed an essential quality that separated them from inanimate matter. Vitalists also argued that it was impossible to generate organic life from inorganic material, as humans could not influence the so-called ‘spark of life.’
The elan vital also played a pivotal role in Bergson’s theory of creative evolution, which suggested that living creatures, particularly humans, were driven by a creative impulse that propelled them to evolve—an alternative explanation to Darwin’s widely accepted theory of evolution. However, as evidence undermining the concept continued to grow, both the elan vital and the theory of vitalism were gradually abandoned in the early 20th century.
3. Alkahest
The term alkahest was introduced by Paracelsus, a 16th-century alchemist and physician, and was believed to be a universal solvent—a substance capable of dissolving any material, a powerful tool for alchemists. Some years later, alchemist van Helmont claimed to have discovered it, though it is now thought that his example was a chemical reagent reacting with the substances he claimed it dissolved.
An intriguing paradox surrounds the idea of a universal solvent: how could one store a substance capable of dissolving all materials? As interest in alkahest waned in the 18th century, German alchemist Kunckel famously dismissed it, declaring “Alles Lugen ist,” meaning “All that is a lie.” The substance was also believed to have medicinal benefits, particularly for the liver, although the mystery remains as to why it wouldn't simply dissolve the person consuming it.
2. Erototoxins
The latest addition to this list, erototoxins were coined by Judith Reisman, a figure without formal medical credentials, who asserts that they are chemical compounds produced in the brain when viewing pornography. According to her theory, these compounds consist of testosterone, oxytocin, dopamine, and serotonin. Furthermore, she claims they are addictive and possess the power to trigger involuntary reactions that could override an individual's free will.
Reisman goes as far as to argue that pornography and the resulting erototoxins inflict permanent damage on the brain, a consequence she believes should render pornography illegal under the First Amendment. She hopes to secure nearly $3 million in funding for research on pornography, with the goal of opening publishers and distributors to lawsuits or even getting Congress to pass laws banning it entirely.
1. Alicorn
The alicorn, often associated with the mystical unicorn, is actually the term for its horn. Much like the horn of a rhinoceros, the alicorn was highly sought after for its supposed medicinal properties, especially its believed ability to neutralize poisons. Another use for it was in the practice of water-conning, where stirring tainted water with the horn was thought to purify it.
It wasn’t until the Middle Ages in Europe, when poisoning became rampant, that the alicorn gained true fame. People believed that a unicorn's horn could 'sweat' when immersed in poisoned liquids, or even cause the liquid to boil, making it an essential item for any noble who feared assassination. Many false alicorns were made from straightened walrus tusks or narwhal horns, and various 'tests' were devised to prove the authenticity of the horn. One such test involved dipping the horn in water and drawing a circle around a scorpion. If the scorpion stayed inside the circle, the horn was deemed a true alicorn.
