Buzz
Terry Pratchett once captured the conventional idea of the universe's creation: “In the beginning there was nothing, which exploded.” The prevailing cosmological model today suggests an expanding universe originating from the big bang, a theory bolstered by evidence such as cosmic background radiation and the redshift of light from distant stars, indicating the universe’s continual expansion.
Nevertheless, there are skeptics. Over time, a number of alternative and diverse cosmological theories have emerged. Some of these are fascinating hypotheses that remain unverifiable due to our current technological or evidentiary limitations, while others are simply flights of fancy, resisting the seemingly unyielding logic of the universe’s defiance of human reason.
10. The Steady State Theory
In a recently uncovered manuscript, Albert Einstein is said to have endorsed British astrophysicist Fred Hoyle’s theory, which posits that space could expand forever while maintaining a constant density, provided that new matter is continually generated by spontaneous creation. Although Hoyle was long regarded as an eccentric, this document reveals that Einstein at least gave serious thought to these ideas.
The steady state theory, introduced in 1948 by Hermann Bondi, Thomas Gold, and Fred Hoyle, arose from the perfect cosmological principle. This principle asserts that the universe appears identical from every point and at all times (on a large scale). This idea was philosophically attractive, implying that the universe had no beginning or end. It gained popularity in the 1950s and 1960s. When confronted with evidence of an expanding universe, advocates of the theory proposed that new matter was continuously generated at a slow, constant rate—just a few atoms per cubic mile per year.
The discovery of quasars in distant galaxies—older from our perspective, and absent in our region of space—dampened support for the steady state theory. It was eventually refuted with the detection of cosmic background radiation. Interestingly, while Hoyle championed this theory, he conducted research that demonstrated how atoms heavier than helium appeared in the universe. These atoms were formed by the high temperatures and pressures inside the first stars. Ironically, it was also Hoyle who coined the term 'big bang.'
9. Tired Light Theory
Edwin Hubble noticed that light from distant galaxies shifted toward the red end of the spectrum, suggesting a loss of energy as the photons traveled. This 'redshift' is typically interpreted as a result of the Doppler effect, related to the expansion of the universe after the big bang. However, proponents of the steady state theory proposed that photons gradually lost energy as they moved through space, causing them to shift to longer, less energetic wavelengths at the red end. This idea was first introduced by Fritz Zwicky in 1929.
The tired light hypothesis faces several issues. Firstly, if a photon’s energy were to change, its momentum would also have to shift, which would result in a blurring effect that is not observed. Secondly, this theory fails to account for the patterns of light emission from supernovae, which better match models for an expanding universe where time dilation occurs due to special relativity. Lastly, most tired light models rely on a non-expanding universe, but such a model would predict a background radiation spectrum inconsistent with our observations. If the tired light theory were accurate, all observed cosmic background radiation would have to originate from sources closer than the Andromeda Galaxy M31 (our nearest galaxy), with anything beyond that being invisible to us.
8. Eternal Inflation Theory
Contemporary models of the early universe propose a brief phase of rapid exponential expansion (inflation) driven by vacuum energy, during which neighboring particles became separated across vast distances. Following inflation, the vacuum energy decayed into a hot plasma that eventually formed atoms, molecules, and more. The eternal inflation theory, however, suggests that this inflation never ceased. Instead, regions of space would have stopped expanding and entered a low-energy state, continuing to inflate within the expanding interior. These regions would be analogous to steam bubbles in a boiling pot, except the pot itself is always growing.
According to this theory, our universe is just one bubble among many in a continuously inflating multiverse. One potentially testable aspect of the theory is the idea that when two universes come close enough to interact, they could cause disruptions in the space-time fabric of each universe. The strongest evidence supporting this theory would be the detection of such disruptions in cosmic background radiation.
The first inflationary model was proposed by Soviet scientist Alexei Starobinsky, but it gained widespread recognition in the West thanks to physicist Alan Guth, who speculated that the early universe may have undergone supercooling, allowing for exponential growth before the big bang. Andrei Linde further developed these ideas into his “eternal chaotic expansion” theory, which posits that expansion can occur from any point in scalar space given sufficient potential energy, meaning that expansion is an ongoing process throughout the multiverse, without the need for a big bang.
Linde states: “Instead of a universe governed by a single set of physical laws, eternal chaotic inflation predicts a self-replicating, ever-existing multiverse where every possibility is realized.”
7. 4-D Black Hole Mirage
The standard big bang model suggests that the universe originated from an infinitely dense singularity. However, this raises the question of how the universe could have such a nearly uniform temperature despite the brief amount of time that has passed since the event. Some theorists propose that this could be explained by an unknown form of energy that caused the universe to expand faster than light. A team of physicists at the Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics suggested that our universe might be a 3-D illusion created at the event horizon of a four-dimensional star collapsing into a black hole.
Niayesh Afshordi and his team examined a 2000 proposal from researchers at Ludwig Maximilians University in Munich, which suggested that our universe is just one membrane within a larger “bulk universe” with four dimensions. They theorized that if this bulk universe contained 4-D stars, they might behave in ways similar to 3-D stars in our universe—exploding into supernovae and collapsing into black holes.
In three-dimensional space, black holes are surrounded by a spherical event horizon, which is two-dimensional in nature. However, in four dimensions, the event horizon would take the shape of a three-dimensional hypersphere. When Afshordi’s team modeled the death of a 4-D star, they discovered that the material ejected during the collapse formed a 3-D brane (membrane) around the event horizon, gradually expanding. They proposed that our universe might actually be the mirage created by the outer layers of a collapsing four-dimensional star.
The 4-D bulk universe, potentially vastly older or even infinite in age, could account for the uniform temperature observed in our universe. However, some recent findings suggest that certain anomalies may align better with the conventional model.
6. Mirror Universe
A major conundrum for physics is that nearly all established models, including gravitation, electrodynamics, and relativity, function equally well whether time progresses forward or backward. In the real world, we know time flows in only one direction, and the common explanation for this is that our experience of time is driven by entropy, where order eventually transforms into disorder. The issue with this theory is that it implies our universe began in an ordered state with low entropy. Many scientists are dissatisfied with the idea that the early low-entropy universe determines the direction of time.
Julian Barbour from the University of Oxford, Tim Koslowski from the University of New Brunswick, and Flavio Mercati from the Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics have developed a theory suggesting that gravity is responsible for determining the forward flow of time. They conducted a computer simulation with 1,000 point-like particles interacting under Newtonian gravity. They found that, regardless of size or number, the particles eventually settled into a low-complexity state of minimal size and maximum density. The particles then expanded in both directions, creating two opposing 'arrows of time,' leading to the development of more ordered and complex structures along two distinct paths.
This suggests that the big bang could have produced not one, but two universes, each with time flowing in opposite directions. According to Barbour:
This two-futures scenario would reveal a chaotic past extending in both directions, meaning there would essentially be two universes, one on each side of this central state. If the universes were sufficiently complex, both could support observers perceiving time moving in opposite directions. Any intelligent life there would perceive their arrow of time as originating from this central state, believing that we now exist in their distant past.
5. Conformal Cyclic Cosmology
Sir Roger Penrose, a physicist from Oxford University, argues that the big bang was not the universe's origin, but rather part of a continuous cycle of expansion and contraction. He suggests that the geometry of space evolves over time, becoming increasingly intricate, as demonstrated by the Weyl curvature tensor, which starts at zero and grows larger. Penrose believes black holes play a key role in reducing entropy in the universe, and as the universe nears the end of its expansion, black holes will consume the remaining matter and energy, ultimately merging with each other. As matter decays and black holes lose energy through Hawking radiation, space becomes uniform, filled with inert energy.
This introduces the notion of conformal invariance, a symmetry of geometries that maintain the same shape but vary in scale. As the universe would no longer align with the conditions it had at the beginning, Penrose argues that a conformal transformation would smooth the geometry of space and reset the particles to a zero-entropy state. The universe would then collapse in on itself, ready for a new big bang to occur. Penrose envisions the universe undergoing a cycle of expansion and contraction, which he divides into periods called 'aeons.'
Penrose, together with Vahe Gurzadyan from the Yerevan Physics Institute in Armenia, examined NASA satellite data on cosmic background radiation and claimed to have discovered 12 distinct concentric rings within the data. They interpret these rings as evidence of gravitational waves caused by supermassive black holes colliding at the end of the previous aeon. This observation serves as the primary evidence supporting the theory of conformal cyclic cosmology.
4. Cold Big Bang And Contracting Universe
The traditional big bang theory suggests that after matter exploded from a singularity, it expanded into a hot and dense universe, then gradually expanded over billions of years. However, this singularity presents challenges when attempting to align it with general relativity and quantum mechanics. Cosmologist Christoff Wetterich from the University of Heidelberg offers an alternative hypothesis, proposing that the universe may have started as a cold and nearly empty place, and only became more dynamic due to its contraction, as opposed to the conventional expanding model.
According to this model, the redshift observed by astronomers may be a result of the universe's mass increasing as it contracts. The emitted light from atoms is influenced by the mass of particles, with more energy shifting the light toward the blue end of the spectrum, and less energy toward the red end.
The major issue with Wetterich’s theory is that it cannot be directly tested through measurement, as we are only able to compare mass ratios rather than actual mass values. One physicist criticized the model, saying it is like claiming that the universe isn't expanding, but rather that the ruler used to measure it is shrinking. Wetterich himself has stated that he does not view his theory as a replacement for the big bang; he only points out that it is equally consistent with all known observations and may provide a more 'natural' explanation.
3. Bindu-Vipshot
Although we have steered clear of invoking religious or mythological creation narratives up until now, Hindu creation stories present a unique case. These stories can align with scientific theories in ways that are rare among other religious cosmologies. As Carl Sagan once observed, 'It is the only religion in which the time scales correspond to those of modern scientific cosmology. Its cycles run from our ordinary day and night to a day and night of Brahma, 8.64 billion years long. Longer than the age of the Earth or the Sun and about half the time since the Big Bang.'
A concept in Hinduism that closely mirrors the big bang theory is the idea of bindu-vipshot, which translates to 'point-explosion' in Sanskrit. The Vedic hymns of ancient India described the bindu-vipshot as producing the sound waves of the syllable 'om,' which represents Brahman, the Ultimate Reality, or Godhead. The term 'Brahman' comes from the Sanskrit root brh, meaning 'to grow big,' which shares some connection with the big bang. Additionally, the scripture title Shabda Brahman might be linked to sphota, meaning 'explosion.' The primordial sound 'om' has even been interpreted as the vibration of the big bang, which can be detected by astronomers as background cosmic radiation.
The Upanishads describe the big bang as an act of Brahman, the one, desiring to become many, a process he achieved through the big bang as an expression of his will. Creation is sometimes portrayed as lila, or 'divine play,' implying that the universe was created as part of a cosmic game, with the big bang being a fundamental moment in that play. After all, no game is truly enjoyable when the omniscient player already knows the outcome.
2. Plasma Universe
While traditional cosmology places gravity at the heart of the universe's guiding forces, plasma cosmology, or the electric universe theory, emphasizes electromagnetism instead. One of the early proponents of this theory was Russian psychiatrist Immanuel Velikovsky, who published a 1946 paper titled 'Cosmos Without Gravitation.' In this work, he argued that gravity is an electromagnetic phenomenon that arises from interactions between atomic charges, free charges, and the magnetic fields of celestial bodies like suns and planets. The theory was further developed in the 1970s by Ralph Juergens, who suggested that stars are powered by electricity rather than by thermonuclear reactions.
Although there are various iterations of plasma universe theories, certain concepts remain consistent across the board. These theories propose that stars and the Sun are electrically powered by drift currents, that some features on planetary surfaces result from 'super-lightning,' and that phenomena like comet tails, Martian dust devils, and galaxy formation are all the result of electrical processes. Additionally, these theories suggest that space is filled with enormous filaments of electrons and ions, which twist due to electromagnetic forces, creating physical matter such as galaxies. Plasma cosmologists generally assume that the universe is both infinite in size and ageless, a view that has limited its appeal among creationists, despite its opposition to the big bang theory.
A landmark book on this subject is The Big Bang Never Happened, written by Eric J. Lerner in 1991. In his work, Lerner critiques the big bang theory, arguing that it incorrectly predicts the density of light elements like deuterium, lithium-7, and helium-4. He also points out that the voids between galaxies are far too vast to be explained by the post–big bang framework. Moreover, the surface brightness of distant galaxies has been observed to remain constant, which contradicts the big bang's prediction that brightness should decrease with distance due to redshift. Lerner further contends that the big bang theory relies too heavily on speculative concepts like inflation, dark matter, and dark energy, and violates the law of conservation of energy by suggesting the universe emerged from nothing.
In contrast, plasma theory is said to accurately predict the abundance of light elements, the large-scale structure of the universe, and attributes such as the absorption of radio waves, which are considered the source of cosmic background radiation. However, many cosmologists argue that Lerner's critiques of big bang cosmology are based on ideas that were already proven to be incorrect at the time he wrote the book. Furthermore, his attempts to explain observations supporting big bang cosmology introduce more issues than they resolve.
1. Living Universe
Jim Carter, an amateur scientist, developed a personal theory about the universe rooted in the existence of eternal hierarchies of 'circlons'—hypothetical circular mechanical objects. Carter proposed that the universe’s entire history could be explained through successive generations of circlons that emerge via processes like reproduction and fission. The inspiration for his theory came in the 1970s, when he observed a perfect ring of bubbles forming from his breathing apparatus while diving for abalone. Later, he refined his theory through experiments using controlled smoke rings created from garbage cans and rubber sheeting, which he believes represent physical examples of a phenomenon he calls circlon synchronicity.
Carter suggests that circlon synchronicity provides a more plausible explanation for the universe's creation than the big bang theory. His 'living universe' theory asserts that at least one hydrogen atom has always existed. In his version of events, the universe began with a single atom of antihydrogen floating in a three-dimensional void. This atom, composed of a positively charged proton and a negatively charged antiproton, had the same mass as the entire present universe. In this state of perfect duality, the negative antiproton began expanding slightly faster than the positive proton, causing it to lose relative mass. Eventually, the two particles grew closer, with the negative antiproton absorbing the positive proton, resulting in the formation of an antineutron.
The antineutron, which was initially imbalanced in mass, eventually reached a state of equilibrium, causing it to split into two new particle-antiparticle neutrons. This process led to an exponentially increasing number of neutrons, some of which did not split but instead annihilated themselves into photons. These photons became the foundation of cosmic rays. Over time, the universe was filled with stable neutrons, which existed for a while before decaying and allowing electrons to combine with protons for the first time. This process resulted in the formation of the first hydrogen atoms, which then led to a chaotic interaction between electrons and protons, ultimately giving birth to the elements. After a period known as “The Era of the Great Frozen Fire,” stars, planets, and consciousness emerged.
Most physicists regard Carter’s theories as unfounded speculations that do not withstand rigorous empirical scrutiny. In fact, Carter's smoke ring experiments were once cited as evidence for the now-debunked ether theory, a concept rejected more than a decade ago.
