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Ancient Rome will likely always remain a key subject of fascination for both historians and archaeologists. While we have uncovered an extraordinary amount about their culture, citizens, and their long reign of dominance, there are still numerous aspects we remain uncertain about. Despite the Romans' remarkable ability to document their history, several mysteries endure. As the peak of their empire occurred centuries ago, there are undoubtedly many secrets we may never fully uncover about this world-altering civilization.
In this article, we will explore ten unresolved questions regarding Ancient Rome. These puzzles continue to intrigue both archaeologists and historians. Perhaps one day, some of these enigmas will be solved, or perhaps they will remain unsolved forever, preserving their mystique.
10. The Skulls of Walbrook Valley
In 2013, during the excavation for London’s Crossrail project near Liverpool Street, workers made a startling discovery—numerous human skulls, far older than initially expected. Upon further investigation by archaeologists, it was determined that the remains date back to the Roman period.
Interestingly, this wasn't the first time such discoveries were made in the area. Back in the 1980s, archaeologists uncovered 39 Roman skulls in the nearby Walbrook Valley. The origins of these skulls and the reason behind their disarticulation remain a mystery. However, these findings have sparked a variety of theories.
One theory posits that these skulls may belong to victims of Boudicca, the Queen of the Iceni, who attacked Londinium in AD 60. Another suggestion is that the site might have been an ancient cemetery that eroded over time, causing the remains to gradually wash downstream. Some historians even wonder if the site could be linked to a mass murder or execution.
Alternatively, it’s been speculated that Roman Londoners might have practiced the 'cult of the head' from the Iron Age. In this belief system, decapitated heads were used in rituals and sacrifices. This could explain why such a small area would be densely packed with skulls. While these ideas are plausible, none have been conclusively proven. Archaeologists are still on the lookout for definitive answers.
9. The Enigma of Mithraism
In ancient times, some Roman practices were kept secret from the public, leaving us with little understanding of them today. Mystery cults, which were popular in the Greco-Roman world, concealed their rituals and traditions, sharing them only with initiates. Unfortunately, no written records exist of these practices, meaning much of this knowledge has been lost to history.
A well-known example of secretive ancient rituals is the Eleusinian Mysteries, an ancient Greek celebration dedicated to Demeter. Similarly, Rome had its own clandestine religion centered on the god Mithras. This faith may have been influenced by the older Zoroastrian god Mithra. However, the exact connection between the two remains a topic of ongoing debate.
Mithraism began in Rome during the 1st century AD and quickly spread across the empire. Followers gathered in subterranean temples known as mithraea, with over 400 ruins still standing today as evidence of the widespread impact of this pagan religion. It was clearly popular and prevalent, but since no written records of the cult's rituals and beliefs have survived, the Mithraic Mysteries remain an unresolved puzzle.
8. Villa of the Mysteries
Just beyond the ancient walls of Pompeii, on a hill once overlooking the city, lie the remains of several villas. Among them, one stands out as a remarkable relic of the past. Despite the passage of more than 2,000 years and the destructive eruption of Mount Vesuvius, this villa has remarkably withstood time’s ravages. Its structure is largely intact, and its walls reveal a stunning array of intricate and vibrant frescoes.
At the center of this villa, there is a room that appears to have been used for dining. Measuring roughly 15 by 15 feet (4.5 by 4.5 meters), it would have been a magnificent space. Three of its walls are adorned with a continuous fresco, depicting a variety of figures engaged in different activities, all set against a striking red background. It is this room that has earned the villa its name: the Villa of the Mysteries.
But what is the story behind this mysterious title? The true meaning behind these enigmatic frescoes continues to elude us. Scholars have speculated that they may provide insight into one of Rome’s little-known mystery cults. Perhaps those dining there were linked to Dionysus. However, alternative theories suggest that the scenes might depict a bride on her wedding day. Some even believe the frescoes portray moments from a theatrical performance. The exact significance of these captivating artworks remains a mystery, though their beauty and rarity are undeniable.
7. The Hertfordshire Dodecahedron
In 1739, a fascinating discovery was made in Hertfordshire, England. It was a Roman artifact, but not just any artifact—it was a finely crafted metal dodecahedron with 12 faces. Each face had small knobs along its edges, and varying-sized circular holes. Since then, over a hundred similar Roman dodecahedrons have been uncovered across Europe, primarily in the former Gaul region of the Rhine basin. Yet, despite thorough investigation, the purpose of these puzzling objects remains a mystery.
Curiously, the Romans left no written records or references to these unusual metal items. Scholars have scoured historical texts from both Roman and Greek civilizations, as well as from neighboring allies and rivals, but unfortunately, no explanations have surfaced.
As a result, various theories have emerged regarding the function of the dodecahedrons. Some suggest they were purely decorative or toys. Others believe they might have been used as measuring tools, astronomical devices, mystical objects for ceremonies, or even weapons such as mace heads or projectiles. Yet, the mystery remains unsolved. Unless an ancient manuscript is discovered to shed light on their purpose, the true use of these Roman dodecahedrons is likely to stay concealed.
6. The Mystery of Silphium
Imagine living in ancient Rome and suffering from ailments such as indigestion or a sore throat. In those times, the miracle herb silphium was the remedy of choice. It was known for its ability to treat a wide variety of conditions and even had aphrodisiac and birth control qualities.
Silphium was so highly valued by the Romans that it was worth more than gold. Not only did it serve medicinal purposes, but it was also used in cooking and perfumes. In fact, it was even fed to sheep, resulting in tender and flavorful meat. Every part of the plant, from its roots to its leaves, had a practical application. Silphium seemed to have it all. The question, however, remains: what exactly was silphium?
Unfortunately, we can’t give a conclusive answer because silphium no longer exists. It is believed that the Romans harvested it into extinction. Today, all we have are ancient records detailing its remarkable properties. Pliny the Elder himself mentioned that he had heard of only a single stalk of silphium being found in his lifetime, which was promptly sent to Emperor Nero. And from that moment, silphium faded into history.
This gift occurred in the 1st century AD, leading historians to believe that silphium had all but vanished long before then. But did it? Some still hold out hope that silphium might still exist, albeit under a different name. Biologists wonder if it is hiding in plain sight, while others speculate that it may have been a hybrid herb that has since been lost to time. Both camps continue to hope that silphium will someday make a surprising return, but for now, its existence remains a mystery.
5. The Disappearance of the Lost Roman Legion
The Romans were renowned for their detailed recordkeeping in all matters. That’s why the disappearance of Legio IX Hispana, a legion of the Imperial Roman Army, remains an unsolved mystery that continues to baffle historians. The origins of this legion are unclear, but it played a role in Caesar’s Gallic Wars and had a documented history up until AD 109, when it was stationed on the northern border of Britain to guard against Scottish tribes.
Fast forward over fifty years to the reign of Marcus Aurelius, when an inscription listing all Roman legions failed to mention Legio IX Hispana. This omission suggests something significant and likely disastrous happened to the legion during that period. It was once thought that the entire legion had been wiped out in a siege against the Picts in Scotland in AD 117, but no record exists to confirm that theory. And thus, the fate of the legion remains uncertain.
Adding to the mystery, recent research has uncovered evidence suggesting that the legion was present in Germania Inferior after AD 121. Another theory proposes that the legion met its end during the Bar Kokhba Revolt in Judea in AD 132. Yet, there is no solid evidence to back up this theory either, leaving it as just another possibility. The fate of Legio IX Hispana continues to be elusive. Where did they go? When did they meet their end? Why were they not listed on the census during Marcus Aurelius’s reign?
4. Baiae’s Hidden Tunnels
In ancient times, Baiae was a luxurious retreat for wealthy Romans seeking to unwind in the therapeutic hot springs that lay beneath the town. However, volcanic activity eventually led to Baiae's submersion into the sea. Today, it remains a fascinating blend of partially submerged ruins and those that remain above water. While much of the town has been excavated by archaeologists, one mystery still endures: the Baiae Tunnels.
The tunnels were far from inviting. Hidden away and almost invisible, they revealed only a small, dark opening in the hillside. Looking inside, one would find a narrow, steaming passage, filled with darkness and an unpleasant odor—hardly the ideal destination for visitors!
In the 1960s, two amateur archaeologists, Robert Paget and Keith Jones, ventured into these depths, hoping to discover the legendary 'cave of the sibyl,' a site once believed to be the source of prophecies. Their exploration unveiled a labyrinth of tunnels, which Paget later named the Great Antrum. It included sections submerged in water and other dead ends that were buried.
Paget theorized that these tunnels symbolized a journey to the underworld. He even suggested that they resembled the one described in Virgil’s Aeneid. He speculated that Virgil himself may have been part of a secret cult that traveled these tunnels. Yet, most scholars remain skeptical. Although it’s plausible that the tunnels had ceremonial or religious significance, their true purpose continues to elude us.
3. Titus Livius’s Work
Rome holds a prominent place among the most thoroughly documented ancient civilizations. Its commitment to record-keeping allowed historians to capture its rich history in exceptional detail. One such historian, Titus Livius, better known as Livy, took on the monumental challenge of writing his 142-volume work titled Ab Urbe Condita, or From the Founding of the City.
This extraordinary work spanned Rome’s entire history, from its origins as a kingdom to the republican era, and even covered its transformation into an empire during Livy’s lifetime. The chronicle provided an impressive 500-year narrative of the city’s evolution.
Sadly, while Livy’s work illuminated lesser-known periods such as the Roman Kingdom, much of it has been lost with time. Out of the original 142 volumes, only 35 have survived in full. Ironically, Livy’s dedication to documenting history inspired others to create condensed versions of his work. The most famous of these is The Periochae, which eventually gained more popularity than Livy’s original due to its accessibility. In a sense, it was the ancient precursor to today’s Cliffs Notes!
Ultimately, the enduring legacy of Rome’s history can be credited to the careful record-keeping of historians like Livy. However, since only fragments of his groundbreaking work remain, there’s much we can only guess about his world. It’s both fascinating and humbling to consider the knowledge that has been lost through the centuries.
2. Chemical Warfare at Dura-Europos
In 256 BC, a fierce confrontation unfolded between the Romans and the Sasanians during the notorious Siege of Dura-Europos, located in present-day Syria. The Romans held the border town, but the Sasanians surprised them with a tactical maneuver. They skillfully dug tunnels beneath the town's outer wall, forcing the Romans to respond by digging their own countermines.
When the two armies finally engaged, the Sasanians had a devastating trick up their sleeve. They ignited braziers filled with pitch and sulfur, releasing a deadly cloud of sulfur dioxide. In the tight, confined space, this toxic cloud caused severe coughing, burning sensations, difficulty breathing, and pulmonary edema. The trap became a death sentence for the advancing Roman soldiers, resulting in tragedy.
Amid the panic, darkness, and claustrophobia, the Romans struggled to retreat in any organized fashion. The deadly gas attack alone is said to have killed 20 soldiers, making it one of the earliest documented instances of chemical warfare. Unfortunately, much about the siege and its aftermath remains a mystery. Although Roman records suggest a chemical assault occurred, the specifics are uncertain. Historians largely agree that the Sasanians' surprise was an innovative military strategy, but we may never know the full truth.
1. The 'Burrito' Sarcophagus
In the ancient city of Gabii, a remarkable discovery was made over a decade ago. Archaeologists unearthed a sarcophagus unlike any other, dating back 1,700 years. This lead coffin, weighing nearly 1,000 pounds (455 kilograms), featured a distinctive and peculiar design that set it apart from all others.
Unlike the typical rectangular design of most sarcophagi, this one was uniquely folded in on itself, creating a shape resembling a massive lead 'burrito.' The big question for archaeologists remains: who lies within this puzzling tomb? Considering the precious nature of lead during this time, it’s unlikely that many could afford such an opulent burial. Even today, theories continue to swirl. Some suggest it may be the tomb of a priest, a noble figure, or perhaps a famed gladiator.
Unfortunately, the mystery remains unsolved, with no clear answers in sight. The sarcophagus's thick, one-inch sides have thwarted all attempts at non-invasive examination, such as X-rays or CT scans. Any attempt to force it open could damage the remains inside, which archaeologists are keen to avoid. For now, the sarcophagus stays sealed, leaving us to wonder about its contents in perpetuity.
