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In 1991, two hikers in the Italian Alps stumbled upon Ötzi, a remarkably preserved 5300-year-old mummy revealed by a retreating glacier. This extraordinary discovery has offered invaluable insights into the lifestyles, diets, tools, and movements of ancient civilizations. As global temperatures rise, thawing permafrost, shrinking ice sheets, and melting glaciers are uncovering a growing number of ancient remains and artifacts, helping archaeologists piece together the puzzle of human history.
However, as these new findings emerge, they face immediate threats. Archaeologists worldwide are now in a race against time, battling rising sea levels, melting ice, erosion, and other climate change effects to preserve and document crucial sites and relics before they vanish forever.
1. ANCESTRAL PUEBLOANS // MESA VERDE NATIONAL PARK
Two years ago, the Union of Concerned Scientists identified Mesa Verde National Park in southwestern Colorado as one of 30 U.S. locations most at risk from climate change. The ancient Puebloans initially built their homes atop the mesa around 1400 years ago before relocating to canyon areas, where they constructed advanced multistory sandstone and wood beam structures.
This area boasts nearly 5000 archaeological sites. However, rising temperatures and reduced rainfall over the past 50 years have led to more frequent and severe wildfires. These fires have damaged petroglyphs and uncovered new sites and artifacts, leaving them exposed to post-fire erosion and flooding.
2. ALTAI MOUNTAINS BURIAL MOUNDS // SIBERIA AND OTHER LOCATIONS
Stretching across Siberia and into China, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, and Russia, the Altai Mountains are home to ancient burial mounds of the Scythians, nomadic horsemen and horsewomen. (The Scythian horsewomen are often referred to as Amazons.) These tombs offer a glimpse into life on the Eurasian Steppe 2500 years ago, containing sacrificed horses, mummified remains like the renowned 5th-century BCE Ukok Princess (the Siberian Ice Maiden), and remarkably preserved everyday items such as furniture, textiles, and saddles.
Researchers believe this region may have been a significant trade route predating the Silk Road, linking East and West and potentially facilitating the exchange of cultural knowledge across Asia and the Middle East. However, time is running out to uncover the secrets of the Scythians and later inhabitants. The permafrost preserving these tombs is thawing, compelling archaeologists to urgently document and protect these invaluable artifacts.
3. SAN NICOLAS ISLAND // CALIFORNIA
Wikimedia Commons // Public Domain
The sea cliffs of the Santa Barbara Channel Islands hold remnants of human history dating back 11,000 years. As the ocean encroaches, archaeologists are working tirelessly to preserve artifacts that reveal the stories of Native Californians. Readers of Scott O’Dell’s Island of the Blue Dolphins will recall the tale of a young Native Californian woman who survived alone on San Nicolas Island for 18 years before being found, brought to the mainland, and baptized as Juana Maria. (Tragically, she passed away just seven weeks after her arrival.)
In 2009, a remarkable find was made on San Nicolas Island when archaeologists stumbled upon two redwood boxes along an eroded cliff. These boxes held a diverse collection of artifacts, offering a glimpse into life on the island during the early 19th century. The mix of European glass and metal, Nicoleño tribal items, and bone harpoons suggested the boxes were used after Russian and Native Alaskan hunting expeditions visited. Some speculate that Juana Maria herself might have hidden these boxes.
Countless treasures like these lie along the California coast and Channel Islands. However, as seen in recent footage of Northern California homes perched precariously on crumbling cliffs, the coastline is rapidly changing. Many archaeological sites risk being lost to the ocean before they can ever be studied.
4. CHAN CHAN // PERU
Six centuries ago, Chan Chan, located on Peru’s coast, served as the capital of the expansive Chimú empire, which stretched from central Peru nearly to Ecuador. As the largest pre-Columbian city in South America, it boasts intricate adobe palaces, temples, and maze-like pathways.
The city’s ability to thrive in a coastal desert highlights the advanced engineering and planning of its inhabitants. Despite minimal rainfall, Chan Chan supported extensive agriculture and lush gardens through sophisticated irrigation systems, including wells and water diversion techniques.
However, the increasing frequency of strong El Niño events threatens to accelerate the erosion of this ancient city. With forecasts of more extreme wet and dry cycles, the fate of this once-thriving city, which stood for centuries before falling to the Incas, hangs in the balance.
5. ISLAND OF MEROE // SUDAN
Wikimedia Commons // CC BY-SA 2.0
Though not an actual island, the Island of Meroe includes the ancient capital of the Kingdom of Kush, Meroe, and the sacred sites of Naqa and Musawwarat es Sufra. Situated near the Nile Valley, this complex was constructed over 2000 years ago in what was once a lush grassland.
One of its most striking features is the Temple of the Lion God, Apedemak, honoring the Meroites' fertility god. The temple is adorned with intricate carvings and hieroglyphics. However, as the climate has grown drier, grasslands have been replaced by Sahara sands, and the temple's painted reliefs and carvings are slowly eroding.
6. THULE CULTURE // GREENLAND
The Thule people originated in Alaska approximately 2000 years ago and gradually expanded their territory, reaching Greenland around 1000 years ago. These resilient individuals adapted to their harsh environment by constructing pit houses dug deep into the ground, using materials like whale bones, stones, and walrus skins. Today, rising sea levels are threatening these ancient remains.
The Thule culture endured and adapted to at least two earlier climate shifts before vanishing in the 14th and 15th centuries. Today, rising temperatures threaten the remnants of this once-hardy Arctic society. As Greenland’s protective sea ice and permafrost melt, Thule settlements and other ancient human sites are succumbing to powerful storm surges and thawing ground. Archaeologists have observed a dramatic increase in coastal erosion and artifact loss over the past decade, with conditions expected to deteriorate further as thawing intensifies.
7. WALAKPA BAY // ALASKA
For 4000 years, the grassy coastline south of Barrow on Alaska’s Northern Slope has been home to semi-nomadic Native Alaskans. However, the area is rapidly disappearing due to coastal erosion and thawing permafrost.
Two decades ago, eroding coastal bluffs began revealing human remains and artifacts, showing the site was far older than previously believed. Since then, rising sea levels, severe storms, and thawing have steadily claimed more of Walakpa and its invaluable relics each year.
As quickly as these artifacts are uncovered, they are being lost to the earth and sea, depriving archaeologists of the chance to gather crucial insights into ancient whaling cultures and the region’s natural history. Walakpa is now one of the world’s fastest-vanishing coastal sites.
8. CHINCHORRO MUMMIES // CHILE
The Chinchorro, an ancient fishing society, thrived in villages along the coasts of northern Chile and Peru in the Atacama Desert. For roughly 3500 years, mummification was central to their culture. Every individual, regardless of age, gender, or social status, was mummified—even unborn children. They removed brains and organs, filling the bodies with materials like straw, reeds, grass, ash, and animal blood to maintain their form. The bodies were then painted before burial, remaining remarkably preserved for thousands of years in the dry desert climate.
However, about ten years ago, some Chinchorro mummies stored at the University of Tarapacá began leaking a black liquid. These mummies, the oldest known human-made mummy collection, some preserved for 7000 years, were deteriorating. What caused this sudden decay?
Scientists eventually linked the degradation, at least partially, to increased humidity inside the museum, which spurred the growth of microorganisms that consume the collagen in mummified skin. This issue wasn’t confined to the museum—rising humidity across the region has raised alarms about the impact on hundreds of mummies still buried in their original sites. Archaeologists hope a new climate-controlled museum, set to open in 2020, will halt further damage. However, for some mummies, this solution may come too late.
9. HISTORIC JAMESTOWN // VIRGINIA
The English settlers chose Jamestown in 1606 for its strategic position on the tidal James River. Surrounded by water on three sides and set inland from the coast, it was easily defensible against Spanish forces. However, the very features that made it attractive now threaten the first permanent English colony in what is today the United States. The area’s water levels are rising at twice the global average, leaving Jamestown just 5 feet above water.
Jamestown offers a unique glimpse into early American life. Alongside military structures, the site includes burial grounds, churches, homes, a blacksmith shop, and a glassblowing factory, representing some of the earliest industrial activities in North America.
Hurricane Isabel in 2003 damaged nearly a million artifacts in a single storm. Projections indicate that water levels could rise an additional two feet by 2050 and up to six feet by the century’s end.
10. CASTLES AND SHIPWRECKS // IRELAND
Ireland’s coastline has endured significant damage from intense winter storms in recent years. While these storms have uncovered hidden treasures like ancient submerged forests and Spanish Armada shipwrecks, they have also caused castles and stone forts to collapse. On Omey Island in Connemara, a 2014 storm revealed Neolithic homes and medieval burial sites, while waves eroded the protective wall around Bunowen Castle near Ballyconneely.
Reports from across Ireland’s coastline highlight both discoveries and destruction. Researchers note that coastal midden sites—organic waste deposits offering insights into ancient daily life—are especially at risk. Last year, the Technology Institute of Sligo organized a conference titled Weather Beaten Archaeology, bringing together researchers, policymakers, and the public to identify at-risk sites and collaborate on their preservation.
11. CHINGUETTI // MAURITANIA
Wikimedia Commons // CC BY-SA 3.0
As the Sahara expands southward, desertification endangers Chinguetti, a Mauritanian heritage site and medieval trading hub that once drew thousands of caravans and Sunni pilgrims traveling to Mecca. Sand is quickly encroaching on this ancient oasis, which thrived between the 13th and 17th centuries.
Desertification and increasingly severe flash floods during rainy seasons trigger intense sandstorms that sweep through the city. At risk are a 13th-century stone mosque and a vital collection of Islamic manuscripts, both vulnerable to the harsh, dry conditions and blowing sand.
12. TURTLE MOUND // FLORIDA
The Timucuan people of central and northeastern Florida were adept hunters, fishermen, and farmers. However, after European contact, their population dwindled due to disease outbreaks, particularly smallpox, which had catastrophic effects. The tribe eventually disappeared, with survivors likely assimilating into Spanish communities or joining neighboring tribes such as the Seminole.
Over a millennium, the Timucuan near present-day New Smyrna built large midden mounds from oyster shells, animal bones, pottery fragments, and other refuse. Turtle Mound, the largest of these, rises 35 feet above the flat coastal terrain. Coastal erosion now endangers the site, but a collaborative effort by the National Park Service, scientists, and the public has established a “living shoreline” of mangroves, marsh grass, and oyster shells to mitigate erosion. Despite this, the site remains vulnerable to future sea level rise and storms.
13. ORKNEY ISLANDS // SCOTLAND
The windswept Orkney Islands, off Scotland’s northern coast, bear traces of successive cultures, including Gaels, Scots, and Vikings. While coastal erosion has long been a persistent threat to Scottish archaeology, recent violent storms and rising sea levels have accelerated the loss of coastal land at an alarming pace.
One notable Orkney site under threat is Skara Brae, a Neolithic farming village estimated to be 4000 to 5000 years old. Unlike many sites of similar age, its stone structures and furnishings have survived remarkably well. Built into a sand dune, the village has been shielded by a sea wall for over a century. However, increasingly powerful storms and surges may soon overwhelm its defenses.
Meanwhile, storms are uncovering new archaeological sites in Orkney. On Sanday Island, a storm revealed a Bronze Age burnt mound on the beach, believed to be over 3500 years old. The mound featured a room where stones were heated and then placed in a water trough. While its purpose remains unclear, archaeologists suggest it could have been a kitchen, sauna, or even a boat-building site. The urgent task is to protect the site before another storm damages it. Locals are being enlisted to monitor Sanday sites and report their status via an app, allowing them to upload photos and updates to a central monitoring system.
14. ABORIGINAL ROCK ART // AUSTRALIA
Across Australia, Aboriginal rock art sites have suffered from vandalism, feral animals, and development. Fire has also caused significant damage, and its threat is expected to grow as Australia becomes hotter and drier, leading to more intense bushfires.
The rising frequency and intensity of wildfires are exposing rock art to heat and soot. In some cases, efforts to prevent wildfires have backfired: In the Kimberley region, controlled burns intended to prevent larger fires have damaged some sites thought to be among the world’s oldest.
15. UNDERWATER ARCHAEOLOGY AROUND THE WORLD
Climate change is presenting both opportunities and challenges for underwater archaeologists. As Arctic ice melts, researchers can now locate shipwrecks previously hidden beneath thick ice. Archaeologists from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration recently identified two 19th-century whaling ships, believed to be part of a 33-ship fleet that sank off Alaska in 1871 after being trapped in ice. With ice thinning and disappearing, NOAA researchers used remote sensing technology to find these wrecks.
However, climate change isn’t entirely beneficial for underwater archaeology. Increased erosion from storms and rising sea levels may bury shipwrecks and artifacts under coastal sediments. Warmer oceans could also drive the migration of invasive species, such as Lyrodus pedicellatus, a shipworm that threatens wooden structures in the North Atlantic. Additionally, ocean acidification may accelerate the corrosion of iron and steel shipwrecks.
All photos courtesy of Getty Images unless otherwise noted.
