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The term sumptuary isn’t just reminiscent of sumptuous and consumption by chance. These words capture the essence of sumptuary laws, which aimed to control consumption, such as restricting the number of courses at banquets. Frequently, these laws targeted clothing, banning luxurious fabrics, excessive decorations, or specific neckline styles, all in an effort to curb extravagance.
Regardless of their official purpose, these regulations simplified the identification of societal hierarchies, reinforcing the existing social structure. They prevented lower-class individuals from wearing opulent attire that might obscure their social standing and barred women from adopting male clothing, thereby restricting their access to certain freedoms.
1. ANCIENT ROME: RESTRICTIONS ON PURPLE, SAFFRON, AND TOGAS.
In ancient Rome, a set of laws aimed to curb excessive displays of wealth through clothing and to assign attire based on social status. One regulation specified that only citizens were permitted to wear the toga, with its design and color indicating their rank. During the Roman Empire, purple—a dye produced by processing thousands of snails—was reserved exclusively for the emperor. Similarly, the combination of purple and saffron (another expensive dye) was restricted to official seers.
Roman women’s attire was also governed by legislation. Between 215-213 BCE, the Lex Oppia imposed restrictions, including a ban on multicolored dresses for women. Enacted during the Second Punic War to limit extravagance, it was overturned just 20 years later, partly due to enforcement challenges.
2. KOREA: COLORS THAT REVEAL ROYAL CONNECTIONS.
A traditional Korean wonsam. Image credit: Wikimedia Commons // CC BY-SA 2.0
While sumptuary laws in many cultures distinguished nobles from commoners, they also clarified royal hierarchies in some regions. During Korea’s Joseon dynasty (1392-1897), where kings often had multiple wives and children, the colors worn by royal women indicated their relationship to the king. For instance, the colors of the wonsam, a ceremonial overcoat for royal and high-ranking married women, were strictly regulated: yellow for the empress, red for the queen, and purple-red for the crown princess and concubines. A princess born to a king and a concubine (or women of noble or lower birth) wore green. These colors allowed for easy identification of rank from afar.
3. ELIZABETHAN ENGLAND: CLOTHING AS A MARKER OF SOCIAL STANDING.
Identifying who deserved deference was partly the motivation behind sumptuary laws in Elizabethan England. Queen Elizabeth I mandated that only individuals of specific noble ranks could adorn themselves with opulent fabrics like silk, satin, and velvet. Her laws also controlled the dimensions of neck ruffs and other extravagant accessories. The queen claimed these rules were intended to prevent young men from incurring debt due to lavish clothing purchases, but they may also have been a response to a rising middle class who could afford to mimic their social superiors.
4. PURITANS: NO EXTRAVAGANT ATTIRE FOR THOSE OF “LOW STATUS.”
Sumptuary laws briefly appeared in colonial America, with some colonists seeking to regulate personal indulgences. The Puritans’ Sumptuary Code expressed a “strong disapproval of men or women of humble backgrounds, education, and occupations adopting the attire of the elite by wearing gold or silver lace, buttons, or knee decorations, or strutting in large boots; or women of similar standing wearing tiffany hoods or scarves, which, while acceptable for those of higher status or better education, we deem unacceptable for those of lower standing.” Extravagant clothing was deemed inappropriate for individuals of “low status, education, and occupation.” For the Puritans, knowing one’s place and dressing accordingly was essential.
5. THE MIDDLE AGES: DISPLAYING FAITH THROUGH ATTIRE.
Medieval Jews
Historically, legislation has been implemented to identify individuals who did not follow the dominant religion. These rules have impacted Christians, Jews, Hindus, and Muslims. While not always aimed at curbing excess, they align with a broader interpretation of sumptuary laws, which includes measures to uphold social hierarchy.
In 8th-century Baghdad, regulations mandated that Christians wear blue and Jews wear yellow. In 1005, Jews in Egypt were required to attach bells to their garments. During the Middle Ages, Jewish communities in Europe often chose subdued attire voluntarily to avoid drawing attention or provoking envy among Christian neighbors. Jewish authorities issued sumptuary rules advising against clothing that might make them conspicuous. However, medieval laws also enforced that Jews and Muslims visibly display their faith—sometimes quite literally.
The Fourth Lateran Council, called by Pope Innocent III in 1215, declared that Jews and Muslims must wear distinct clothing. This led to various laws across France, Italy, Spain, and England, requiring visible markers like badges, hats, or bands. For Jews, this typically meant a badge, usually yellow but sometimes white or red.
In 1275, following England’s Edward I’s Statute of the Jewry [PDF], Jews were compelled to wear a yellow badge shaped like “two Tables joined,” symbolizing the Tables of the Law.
Some discriminatory dress codes were remarkably detailed. In 1397, Queen Maria instructed Barcelona’s Jews to wear only pale green garments with a yellow patch featuring a red circle at its center.
6. THE RENAISSANCE: ATTIRE AS A MARK OF DECORUM.
Henins from the 15th century. Image credit: Wikimedia Commons // Public Domain
In the Renaissance, European sumptuary laws controlled numerous elements of women’s clothing—ranging from sleeve styles to button sizes, as well as which body parts needed to be concealed. A law in the Italian city of Orvieto specified that a woman’s neckline could not extend beyond “two fingers’ breadth below the suprasternal notch on the chest and the same in the back.” Naturally, debates arose over the most accurate way to enforce this measurement.
Women were often urged to dress conservatively and cover their hair, whether with a caul, a henin, or a wimple. However, the era’s extravagant headwear—sometimes towering several feet—was intended to draw attention.
Prostitutes were exempt from the same sumptuary laws that restricted lavish clothing, as their livelihood depended on attracting clients. However, they were often required to wear specific colors, garments, or accessories to set them apart from other women. These regulations varied by city, potentially causing confusion for travelers. In 14th-century Venice, prostitutes had to wear yellow. In Milan, they donned black cloaks, while in Florence, they were mandated to attach bells to their hats.
Prostitutes were typically barred from wearing a particular fashionable accessory. In 12th-century Arles (modern-day France), they were prohibited from wearing veils, which were symbols of respectability. In certain cities, removing a woman’s veil was equivalent to accusing her of being a prostitute. Such an act could lead to hefty fines or even a duel to uphold the woman’s reputation.
All images via Getty unless otherwise noted.
