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Rome's two most infamous emperors had more in common than just a family connection. Both Caligula and Nero ascended to power at a young age, became increasingly corrupt, lost the loyalty of the Roman people, and were eventually assassinated—that's the version we commonly hear, anyway.
There's another factor, though—both Nero and Caligula had an arrogance that deeply offended the Roman elite, the very people responsible for writing the histories and correspondence that continue to shape our perceptions of these emperors.
It turns out the pen often wields more power than the scepter, as much of what we believe today about Rome’s notorious rulers is rooted in hostile accounts. Cruel? Certainly. But insane? You decide. Here are nine myths about the two emperors that have been debunked:
9. Caligula’s Lavish Spending Ruined Rome's Finances
Fiscal responsibility and madness rarely coexist. Therefore, if it’s true that Emperor Caligula emptied the Roman treasury during his brief four-year reign (A.D. 37-41), it would certainly challenge the notion of his sanity.
Caligula—like many young men in their early twenties—was known to indulge in extravagant orgies. Despite the significant rise in games, festivals, and public spectacles, and multiple ancient records alleging that Caligula bankrupt one of history’s wealthiest empires, less biased evidence reveals a different narrative.
Even up until his death, Caligula’s administration continued to mint vast quantities of gold and silver coins. And before his body had even cooled, his successor Claudius began numerous costly projects and public works that would have been impossible without the full treasury Caligula had amassed. Claudius initiated the construction of new aqueducts, started building a massive artificial harbor at Ostia, invaded Britain, and maintained gladiatorial games—all without raising taxes, even after distributing some of the largest bribes to bodyguards ever. This suggests that much of this was funded by Caligula’s skill at building up the empire’s finances.
8. Nero Killed His Own Mother
It’s easy to think of a mother as the gentle, loving figure who supports us in every aspect of life—helping with homework, making meals, and attending sports events. But for Nero, his 'mom' was anything but conventional. Agrippina the Younger, his mother, was a woman who used her intelligence and ruthlessness to navigate the dangerous political world of ancient Rome. She was a master of manipulation, having murdered and betrayed her own family to clear the way for her son's rise to power.
Nero became emperor at the age of sixteen, an age when most young people are still under the guidance of those who shape their future. In Nero’s case, it was his ambitious mother Agrippina who had initially controlled the reins of power. However, her influence over him was eventually curtailed by Seneca, the philosopher who became Nero's tutor. Under Seneca's guidance, Nero initially made decisions that were thoughtful and pragmatic, but that period was short-lived, as Agrippina's influence continued to shape her son’s reign.
The rising tension between Nero and his mother escalated as Agrippina’s attempts to control him became more apparent. Her accusations of incest aimed at discrediting Nero only deepened the chasm between them. Eventually, Nero, with the reluctant agreement of his tutor Seneca, took drastic action. Agrippina’s life was cut short in a brutal fashion, her death serving as both a political move and a statement of Nero’s power, as a centurion fulfilled the emperor's deadly command.
One of the darker aspects of Caligula's reign was his ruthless taxation system. He mercilessly imposed heavy taxes on the Roman people, driving many to the brink of despair. Caligula’s taxing policies were a reflection of his cruelty and disregard for the common people, a decision that deepened the divide between the emperor and his subjects.
After Caligula's death, his successor Claudius took over the empire, and it appears that Caligula left the Roman treasury in a much better condition than some might have assumed. Many of the claims regarding exorbitant taxes come from later sources like Suetonius, who wrote long after Caligula's reign had ended. These sources often painted Caligula as a tyrant who burdened the people with ridiculous taxes, but the truth is likely far from that description.
In fact, Caligula enjoyed widespread popularity among the common Roman people. His audacious behavior and grandiose style made him a figure beloved by many, though the senatorial class—who were the ones most impacted by taxes—viewed him less favorably. These very senators were the ones who chronicled Caligula's reign, shaping how we understand the emperor and his rule today.
This popularity with the masses can help explain the peculiar reaction to Caligula’s assassination. Instead of rejoicing at the death of a tyrant, the people called for an investigation into the murder. Caligula, despite his often harsh and unreasonable rule, managed to maintain a certain rapport with the public, which is why his taxes were, in fact, moderate by the standards of the time. Many of these tax policies were even made permanent by his successors.
One of the most memorable images of Nero's reign is that of him playing the fiddle while Rome burned. His indifference to the catastrophic fire that ravaged the city became emblematic of his neglectful rule, earning him a place in history as a leader more interested in personal amusement than the well-being of his people.
It’s important to note that Nero couldn’t have been playing an instrument like the fiddle, as it didn’t even exist at the time. Moreover, historical accounts vary on whether Nero was even present in the city during the fire. Some ancient sources cast doubt on whether he sang at all during the disaster.
In fact, Nero may have been trying to express his grief through song rather than words, which makes sense when we consider his actions after the fire. Upon his return, he took charge, launching a large-scale relief effort and enforcing strict building codes to prevent another tragedy of similar scale. Nero even ordered several public works projects to restore the city. The historian Tacitus, who was no admirer of Nero, conceded that the “new” Rome was actually an improvement over the previous one.
However, Nero’s grand plans for the construction of the Domus Aurea—a vast palace—ended up overshadowing the positive impact of his other efforts. Had he chosen a different location or time to build this extravagant palace, he may have been spared the public backlash that followed.
One of the more scandalous tales from Caligula’s reign is the rumor that he had an affair with his sister. The audacity of this claim made it one of the more notorious episodes of his controversial rule.
From a modern perspective, Caligula's intimate relationship with his sister may appear as an undeniable indication of his moral decay. However, it's important to consider that the social norms of the ancient world, particularly among royalty, were quite different from today’s standards.
It’s easy to overlook the fact that both Caligula and imperial Rome were still very young during this time. Rome had not yet adapted to the idea of absolutist rule, and Caligula had few historical examples to follow. Many scholars suggest that Caligula was deeply influenced by the practices of Hellenistic and Near Eastern kingdoms, where absolute monarchs often secured their bloodlines through incestuous unions.
Part of Caligula’s appeal among the Roman people stemmed from his Julian ancestry. While Caligula was known for his sexual escapades, his relationship with his sister may have been driven, at least partially, by a desire to maintain the purity of the Julian bloodline and ensure a clear successor. His actions, however, conflicted with Roman values, and despite being fully aware of the controversy, Caligula defiantly displayed statues of his sister to further assert his preferences.
One of the darker aspects of Nero’s reign was his persecution of Christians, a group that he targeted with cruelty and harsh punishment during his rule.
Before rushing to label Nero as a ruthless murderer, it's worth noting that he initially began his reign by banning capital punishment—a remarkable move for the time. What’s even more surprising is that, unlike his predecessors, Nero refrained from ordering the mass execution of senators, an act that was commonplace in Roman politics. For a significant portion of his rule, he avoided the intimidation tactics of secret trials and executions.
At first, opposition to Nero was mostly ignored. Rather than execute critics, he seemingly dismissed the lampooners and satirists. However, everything changed after the Great Fire. In an attempt to restore his reputation, Nero turned to the emerging Christian movement and used them as convenient scapegoats.
To the Romans, Christianity was viewed as just another cult, one that was seen as treasonous and in violation of Roman laws. The Roman state was already highly suspicious of any religion not approved by the government, and the Christians were readily accepted as a threat to the Empire. The brutal persecution that followed was harsh but not unprecedented, reflecting more of a calculated political strategy than outright madness.
Despite the accusations against him, it is important to remember that many of the sources we have about Nero are deeply critical. These sources have shaped much of our understanding of him, often painting a portrait of a man who was despised by his contemporaries.
Ancient sources abound with claims, and the accounts we have today often depict the reigns of Caligula and Nero in a particularly dark light. However, relying solely on literary sources to understand the true nature of these emperors and their rule presents challenges and limitations.
Even before the body of a deposed emperor had cooled, his successor would often work to reshape the narrative of the previous ruler’s reign. If the fallen emperor was depicted as a monster, then his untimely demise was justified in the eyes of the public. This drive to distance themselves from predecessors who met violent ends likely explains much of the animosity found in the earliest accounts.
Forming an accurate picture of Rome’s notorious emperors becomes even more difficult when early literature labels their behavior as “insanity”—not to describe a frothing madness, but to signify tyranny. For example, Seneca criticizes Caligula’s ambition and megalomania as being insane. What many don’t realize, however, is that Seneca uses the same word to describe Alexander the Great’s behavior.
One of the biggest issues with our surviving sources is that they are almost uniformly hostile, and very few were written during the lifetimes of Caligula or Nero. The most extreme and outlandish claims tend to emerge from literature written long after these emperors' deaths, raising doubts about their accuracy and motivations.
It’s like playing a game of 'telephone' stretched across centuries. Imagine if, two millennia from now, historians tried to piece together a record of Obama’s presidency using only scathing broadcasts from Fox News personalities like Glenn Beck—such an account would be deeply biased and one-sided.
2. Nero’s madness led to his downfall.
The narrative often goes as follows: Nero’s depravity turned Rome and its armies against him, prompting them to back a general named Galba, forcing Nero to flee the city, where he ultimately took his own life.
While Nero did indeed engage in some cruel and bizarre behavior—especially in the later years of his reign—these antics didn’t seem to have a major impact on the army’s loyalty. His downfall came primarily due to his ineptitude and cowardice. In A.D. 68, Nero fled Rome after hearing rumors of a provincial rebellion. Despite the emperor’s panic, the frontier legions quelled the uprising and remained loyal until they were left with no other option.
Initially, it was Galba, the would-be emperor, who was labeled a public enemy. It wasn't until Nero abandoned his post and fled the city that the Senate declared him an enemy of Rome and made Galba emperor. By the time Nero took his own life outside the city, he had left the empire behind as thoroughly as the Senate, the Praetorian Guard, and the Roman people had abandoned him.
1. Caligula Made His Horse Consul
Here’s another popular story—and something like it did nearly occur. However, in reality, Caligula didn’t make his horse consul out of insanity; rather, he wanted to emphasize his growing frustration with senators who, in his eyes, were as unintelligent as horses.
We’ve addressed this myth before, but there’s more to it than just the fact that Caligula’s horse never actually became consul. Many historians argue that Caligula did indeed promise to elevate his horse to the highest office in the government—but only as a sarcastic joke.
Rome, particularly its elite, liked to maintain the illusion that it wasn’t an absolutist state, continuing to uphold the pomp and rituals of the old republican government. Caligula, as we’ve pointed out, openly flaunted his power in nearly every way imaginable. Various accounts describe him as having a rather cruel and mocking sense of humor, which is hardly surprising for a typical twenty-four-year-old. When Caligula declared his intention to make his horse consul, he was, in effect, reminding his future biographers that their careers, their social standing, and their very lives were ultimately meaningless, dependent entirely on the emperor's will. It’s likely that few, if any, found his joke amusing.
