Explore the remarkable individuals who played a key role in advancing medieval European science, showing that this era was far from the stagnant and regressive period it is often portrayed as.

A common misconception is that the Middle Ages represented a 'Dark Age' for Europe, where progress halted, and society descended into violence, ignorance, and superstition for centuries. Science, it’s believed, was at a standstill, with Carl Sagan even describing it as a 'millennium gap… a poignant lost opportunity for the human species.'

In reality, science flourished during the Middle Ages, and the Catholic Church actually supported scientific exploration, as long as it aligned with Christian teachings. As a result, many scientists of the period were monks and clergy members. Let’s take a closer look at ten figures who made medieval European science extraordinary.

10. Augustine's Groundbreaking Theory on Evolution

While many fundamentalist Christians oppose the idea of evolution due to a literal interpretation of Genesis, early Christian thinkers approached the scriptures in both literal and allegorical ways. The leading theologian of the time, St. Augustine of Hippo (354–430), wrote about the creation story, stating, 'We should not think either of those days as being like the ones governed by the sun.' This perspective allowed Augustine to propose an early form of theistic evolution, over 1,400 years before Charles Darwin’s 'On the Origin of Species.'

Augustine proposed that all forms of life emerged from the primeval waters, where 'all kinds of animals, plants, and trees are born and develop in time… each according to its nature.' He described the 'primordial seeds' from which life sprang. Using a tree's growth as an analogy, he remarked that 'The tree surely did not spring forth suddenly (in a mature) size and form.' Likewise, he believed God did not create species instantaneously but intended for them to evolve into 'their appropriate forms in due time.'

With nothing more than analogy and a touch of common sense, Augustine managed to intuit a significant scientific principle.

9. The Scientific Pope

Gerbert of Aurillac (d. 1003), who became Pope Sylvester II in 999 AD, was a scholar who studied astronomy, geometry, and mathematics in Muslim Spain. He is recognized as the first known Christian to use Arabic numerals in calculations and played a crucial role in spreading their use.

Gerbert was also a dedicated astronomer, using a homemade sighting tube to observe the stars and document their positions in terms of celestial longitude and latitude. He created auxiliary spheres that mapped constellations and planetary orbits. An accomplished musician, he designed a hydraulic-powered organ with brass pipes, and as a clockmaker, he built an innovative mechanical timepiece.

His intellect was so extraordinary that rumors spread in Spain, suggesting he had learned the art of magic. Regardless of these whispers, there is no question that Gerbert was a true Renaissance figure, ahead of his time.

8. The Monk Who Took Flight

Eilmer of Malmesbury (b. 980) was no ordinary monk. Around 1005, he became the first aviator in Britain’s history.

Eilmer's inspiration came from the myth of Daedalus. He jumped from the 82-foot (25-meter) tower at Wiltshire Abbey, gliding about 650 feet (200 meters) before crashing. Though he survived, he broke both his legs. He later realized his failure was caused by the absence of a tail on his flight apparatus.

Modern calculations confirm that Eilmer must have launched into the southwest wind, which enabled him to glide the required distance. However, the lack of a tail would have caused him to be blown sideways, landing precisely where the historical account describes—Oliver’s Lane, 650 feet (198 meters) away.

Eilmer’s flight shouldn’t be seen as a complete failure. His attempt fueled the imaginations of countless inventors, keeping humanity's dream of flight alive for generations.

7. Sacrobosco’s Influence on the Concept of the Sphere

Contrary to popular belief, medieval people did not think the Earth was flat. In fact, the ancient Greek mathematician Eratosthenes had already estimated its circumference with surprising accuracy.

John de Sacrobosco (1195–1256), also known as John of Hollywood, was the medieval equivalent of Carl Sagan. His seminal work on basic astronomy, *The Sphere*, brought science into the public eye like never before. It served as a textbook for centuries and helped instill in people the understanding that the Earth must be round—a concept that many, even today, still struggle to accept.

John provided compelling evidence for a spherical Earth, pointing to the disappearance of ships over the horizon and the shifting patterns of constellations as one traveled across the globe. He observed that the seas 'naturally seek a round shape,' similar to droplets on a leaf. John’s work would go on to teach generations of students the fundamental math and science behind natural phenomena.

6. The Pioneer Who Created Rainbows

Roger Bacon (1220–1292), an English Franciscan philosopher, was a precursor to modern experimental science. A student of mathematics and astronomy, Bacon was the first European to describe gunpowder. Long before their invention, he envisioned flying machines, motorized ships, and automobiles.

Bacon was a strong advocate for the empirical method in science, emphasizing the importance of learning through experimentation rather than relying solely on hearsay. He invested a considerable fortune in acquiring instruments and training assistants, using these resources to conduct experiments in optics and study the nature of light. His discoveries led to the creation of a telescope-like device and a pinhole camera for projecting images. One of his most impressive feats was creating a rainbow by passing light through a glass bead—one of the earliest instances of replicating a natural phenomenon in a laboratory setting.

As might be expected, Bacon’s advanced knowledge made him the target of accusations of sorcery, possibly leading to his eventual condemnation and imprisonment later in his life.

5. The Dawn of Zoology

Medieval scholars typically focused on sciences that had immediate practical value, avoiding fields like zoology. When it came to animals, they often relied on Aristotle’s teachings or accepted superstitions as fact. Bestiaries, which mixed reality with fantasy, further muddied the waters. It was German theologian Albertus Magnus (d. 1280) who broke this pattern by using direct observation of nature to understand living creatures.

Albertus Magnus' works, *De vegetabilibus et plantis* and *De animalibus*, covered topics like animal and plant species, taxonomy, anatomy, and biodiversity. He dissected animals to explore the relationship between anatomical structure and behavior. Albert classified animals based on their physiological functions and even distinguished between social and solitary species. His work marked the first truly exhaustive exploration of the natural world.

Albert's groundbreaking research in life sciences and other areas led to rumors that he had created a lifelike android to guard his home and engage in conversation. Whether or not these rumors were true, what remains clear is that Albert's detailed observations laid the foundations for modern zoology.

4. Grosseteste’s Vision of the Multiverse

The idea of the multiverse—multiple universes existing alongside our own—is a key concept in modern cosmology. But when scientists examined a Latin text from 1225 by English philosopher Robert Grosseteste (1175–1253), they were astounded to realize that he was already proposing a theory of the multiverse and the Big Bang.

When scientists translated Grosseteste's concepts into mathematical formulas and input them into a computer, they were surprised to find that the universe could have evolved exactly as he envisioned. This included a Big Bang at the start, light and matter coupling to form the cosmos, and the nine concentric spheres of medieval cosmology being created through compression from matter radiating inward from the cosmos' outer layer (much like a supernova's shockwave). The innermost core, imperfect as it was, would eventually become Earth.

Like modern cosmologists, Grosseteste understood that only a very specific set of conditions could have created this type of universe. He even hinted that if different conditions had applied, entirely different universes might have arisen—a concept suggesting the existence of a multiverse. In response, physicist Richard Bower from Durham University remarked, 'From a scientist’s perspective, I find I had previously completely underestimated the depth of logical argument in the Middle Ages.'

3. Heliocentrism Before Copernicus

The idea that Earth isn't the unmoving center of the universe was vehemently opposed by the medieval Church. Copernicus would later face condemnation in the 16th century for proposing it, but the notion was actually anticipated a century earlier by philosopher-scientist Nicole Oresme (d. 1382). Oresme argued that biblical references to a stationary Earth shouldn't be taken literally, and he entertained the once-radical thought that the planet could be spinning on its axis.

When faced with the argument that an arrow shot straight up wouldn't fall further westward if Earth were moving, Oresme countered with the idea that all motion is relative. While this was an insightful observation, his faith ultimately led him to uphold his belief in a stationary Earth.

However, this failure does not diminish his other remarkable achievements. Oresme, like all great scientists, preferred naturalistic explanations over supernatural ones. He stated, 'There is no reason to take recourse to the heavens… or to demons, or to our glorious God, as if he would produce these effects directly, any more than [he directly produces] those effects whose [natural] causes we believe are well known to us.'

Oresme used the mathematics of irrational numbers to challenge the validity of astrology. In doing so, he directly opposed King Charles V of France, a staunch believer in astrology. In a time dominated by superstition, Oresme showed skepticism toward the occult and 'marvelous' events. As a mathematician, he also invented coordinate geometry well ahead of Descartes and was the first to apply fractional exponents.

2. Buridan's Laws of Motion

The universe operates without the need for supernatural intervention, which was the central idea behind Jean Buridan’s (1301–1358) law of impetus. This was a groundbreaking concept in cosmology, predating by centuries the laws of motion later proposed by Galileo and Isaac Newton. Despite being immersed in medieval beliefs, even naturalistic scientists of the time believed that angels moved the celestial spheres.

In a precursor to the law of inertia, Buridan claimed that a moving object would continue indefinitely unless an external force acted upon it. The initial velocity could be imparted by a mover, and the impetus would be proportional to both the object's weight and velocity. Buridan acknowledged the implications of this, noting, 'One could imagine that it is unnecessary to posit intelligences as the movers of celestial bodies since the Holy Scriptures do not inform us that intelligences must be posited. For it could be said that when God created the celestial spheres, He began to move each of them as He wished, and they are still moved by the impetus which He gave to them because, there being no resistance, the impetus is neither corrupted nor diminished.'

Although Buridan’s concept was later replaced by the laws of momentum and inertia, it led other philosophers to recognize that a single set of laws governed both the celestial and terrestrial realms of motion. This realization paved the way for Newton’s development of his theory of gravity.

1. Solving Perpetual Motion

A perpetual motion machine that generates free, unlimited energy remains an impossible aspiration because it contradicts the first and second laws of thermodynamics. Yet, this has not deterred brilliant minds from pursuing it. One such visionary was Peter Peregrinus of Maricourt (b. 1240). A military engineer in France, Peter’s pioneering work with magnets laid the foundation for William Gilbert’s subsequent research on magnetism and electricity. He was the first to identify the poles of magnets and explore their properties in his groundbreaking treatise, Epistola de magnete, the earliest surviving work on magnetism.

Peter described various devices that utilized magnets, including an improved compass that helped sailors not only determine their position but also track the azimuth of the sun, moon, and stars. This advanced compass would prove crucial in the Age of Discovery.

In addressing the challenge of perpetual motion, Peter suggested using magnets to propel a wheel that would turn endlessly. He also envisioned a magnetic globe mounted without friction, aligned with the celestial axis. This globe would rotate once daily, in sync with the movements of the heavens. It would be engraved with a map of the skies and serve as both an automatic armillary sphere for astronomical observations and an accurate timekeeping device.

While these devices could not be realized, they nonetheless paved the way for the practical applications of magnets.