Buzz
As societies advanced, the written word became indispensable for accurate records—whether for governance or the preservation of myths. Reconstructing lost or forgotten languages is a challenging endeavor, often guided by chance, yet it remains an essential method for understanding our development as a species.
10. Gothic Bible
Language: Gothic
The Gothic Bible, also known as the Wulfila Bible, was created around AD 350. While only fragments remain today, many of these pieces were revised in the fifth century by a Catholic priest named Salvian, who denounced them as containing blasphemous phrases.
The reason behind this was that Wulfila, like many Goths, adhered to Arianism—an interpretation of Christianity that regarded Christ not as God but as a created being. This view was in direct opposition to Catholic beliefs in the Holy Trinity.
Wulfila, whose name means “Little Wolf” in Gothic, was a bishop and missionary raised among the Goths. At the age of 39, he decided that translating the Bible into Gothic would help in converting his people to Christianity more effectively.
Since there was no established alphabet and the Gothic language had few words, Wulfila had to create much of it himself. He adapted the Greek alphabet and devised new terms to express abstract concepts found in the Bible.
The complete Bible was translated, with the exceptions of 1 Kings and 2 Kings. The historian Philostorgius offered an explanation for these omissions: The Goths, being “fond of war, were in greater need of restrictions to control their military impulses than incentives to push them toward deeds of war.”
9. Hieroglyphs Found in the Tomb of Seth-Peribsen
Language: Egyptian
While individual Egyptian hieroglyphs can be found in various places, the earliest known instances of full sentences written in Egyptian hieroglyphs are found in the tomb of Seth-Peribsen, a pharaoh from the late second dynasty, dating back to around 2740 BC.
Seth-Peribsen, who was the first pharaoh to adopt a Seth name instead of a Horus name, was interred at Umm el-Qa'ab, an ancient burial site where numerous early dynastic kings were laid to rest.
Some uncertainty surrounds his reign, as his name was left off later royal lists. However, to counter this argument, some scholars point out that many priests in the fourth dynasty devoted themselves to his funerary rites, leading to the belief that Seth-Peribsen was widely regarded as a prominent ruler of both Upper and Lower Egypt.
Supporting this claim, clay seals discovered in Seth-Peribsen's tomb bear the inscription: 'Sealing of everything of Ombos (Naqada): He of Ombos [Seth] has joined the Two Lands for his son, the Dual King Peribsen.'
8. Praeneste Fibula
Language: Latin
The Praeneste fibula, also known as the brooch of Palestrina, is a golden brooch with a complex and controversial history. It was first introduced to the public in 1887 by German archaeologist Wolfgang Helbig at the German Archaeological Institute.
Helbig stated that he had received the brooch from a friend who supposedly found it in Palestrina, an ancient city still inhabited and located about 30 kilometers (20 miles) east of Rome. Eventually, it was revealed that the mysterious friend was actually Francesco Martinetti, a skilled forger. Helbig's reputation was also tainted by rumors of questionable actions, although most of these arose after his death.
Concerns about the Praeneste fibula arose due to an engraving on the 10-centimeter (4 in) brooch, which reads: 'Manios had me made for Numerius.' This inscription, dating back to the seventh century BC, is the earliest known example of Latin writing.
However, as early as 1905, there were suspicions that the engraving might have been forged. In 2011, scientists employed advanced testing techniques and confirmed that the Praeneste fibula was authentic 'beyond any reasonable doubt.'
The evidence presented centered on microcrystallizations of gold in the inscription, which could only have developed over centuries. A forger in the 19th century would not have been able to replicate this phenomenon.
7. Knossos Tablets
Language: Mycenaean Greek (Linear B)
Mycenaean Greek, which is the earliest known form of the Greek language, is also referred to as Linear B, especially when talking about its writing system. Most scholars agree that Linear B evolved from an earlier syllabic script known as Linear A.
Linear A is often called the 'Minoan language' because it is found in the ruins of the Minoan civilization. It remains untranslated to this day. In contrast, Linear B has been successfully translated, with nearly 200 signs identified on clay tablets. These signs depict a wide range of symbols, from numerals to various objects.
Most of the clay tablets featuring Linear B inscriptions were uncovered in Knossos on the island of Crete, as well as in Mycenae and Pylos on mainland Greece. In 1900, British archaeologist Arthur Evans discovered a wealth of tablets dating to around 1400 BC. Despite this, the script remained unsolved for many years.
The task was ultimately taken on by Michael Ventris, an amateur scholar who was largely self-taught and had first encountered the tablets as a schoolboy. More than 50 years after their discovery, the tablets were finally translated. They primarily served to document the distribution of goods.
6. Behistun Inscription
Language: Old Persian
For scholars, the Behistun Inscription holds an essential role in understanding cuneiform script, much like how the Rosetta Stone aids in deciphering Egyptian hieroglyphs. Considered by many to be the first known example of Old Persian, the inscription is carved into a cliff at Mount Bisotoun, meaning 'the place of God,' in Iran.
Created by Darius the Great following his coronation in 522 BC, the Behistun Inscription is less of a historical account and more of a celebratory autobiography, sometimes veering into what could be seen as propaganda.
Old Persian, a precursor to the modern Farsi language, only lasted for a few centuries. The natural evolution of language eventually led to a new form that was distinct enough to be considered an entirely different language.
The true meaning of the text, as well as the identity of its author, was lost to time until Sir Henry Rawlinson, known as the father of Assyriology, succeeded in deciphering it.
5. Instructions Of Shuruppak
Language: Sumerian
The Instructions of Shuruppak may be considered the pinnacle of Sumerian wisdom literature, writings designed to impart knowledge about the divine or teach how to lead a virtuous life. These instructions were authored by a king of the same name, directed towards his son.
Much like the Proverbs found in Jewish and Christian traditions, the Instructions of Shuruppak are filled with advice, ranging from moral guidance to practical counsel.
While the precise date of its creation remains uncertain, surviving copies discovered in the ruins of Abu Salabikh have been dated back to 2500 BC. The Instructions of Shuruppak were widely used as teaching material, as evidenced by the significant number of copies found in various locations, some of which date as late as 1500 BC.
The later version of the text was written in Akkadian, which had by then replaced Sumerian as the dominant spoken language, largely due to the military campaigns of Sargon of Akkad.
4. Ebla Tablets
Language: Eblaite
The Ebla tablets, discovered in the ancient city of Ebla, Syria, number over 11,000 and were found in situ, a term used in archaeology to indicate that the tablets were discovered in their original locations.
Italian archaeologist Pablo Matthiae uncovered the tablets in the mid-1970s. Their discovery has been crucial in uncovering the history of a remarkably prosperous kingdom that flourished throughout the third millennium BC.
Eblaite, the second oldest known Semitic language after Akkadian, is perhaps the most ancient language to have survived in a significant form. Much like other Mesopotamian languages, the cuneiform script used by the people of Ebla was heavily influenced by Sumerian.
Thanks to the language and the large number of tablets found in Ebla, scholars have utilized it to aid in the comparative study of other Semitic languages, such as Hebrew.
The Ebla tablets also sparked significant controversy, with many claims suggesting that they confirmed cities mentioned in Jewish tradition. For years, it was believed that the tablets contained the earliest references to several cities, including Jerusalem. However, this claim has since been proven false.
3. Mesha Stele
Language: Moabite
The Mesha Stele, inscribed with the Phoenician alphabet, was commissioned by King Mesha of Moab following his successful efforts to restore his people's lands.
Dating to around 860 BC, the stele recounts the exploits of Mesha, including his construction projects, and the actions of Kemosh, the Moabite god, who returned to aid his people in overthrowing Israel’s dominance. Notably, it contains the earliest known nonbiblical mention of the word 'Israel.'
The first European to encounter the stele was French missionary F.A. Klein, who was guided there by a local bedouin. Klein passed along the discovery to French archaeologist Charles Simon Clermont-Ganneau, who recognized its significance, especially as archaeological finds supporting biblical events were becoming increasingly important.
Clermont-Ganneau arranged for an Arab intermediary to take a 'squeeze' (a papier-mâché impression) of the stele, a decision that turned out to be very fortunate. However, when he later sent someone to take a stamp of the stele, the local bedouins, possibly due to local political tensions or a dispute over ownership, destroyed it by breaking it into pieces.
Approximately 60 percent of the original stele survived. The rest was reconstructed using the squeeze obtained by Clermont-Ganneau. The reconstructed stele is now displayed in the Louvre.
2. Markings On Oracle Bones
Language: Chinese
The oracle bones, which featured markings from an ancient form of written Chinese, were frequently discovered. However, it was mostly peasants who unearthed them.
Some individuals, unaware of the oracle bones' true significance, ground them into poultices for treating various ailments. These fragments, dating back to 1200 BC, were taken from the shells of turtles or bones of buffalo, inscribed with different texts and used by the Shang dynasty kings to predict the future.
Wang Yirong, a Chinese antiquarian, was the first to recognize the true value of these bones after discovering them being sold as 'dragon bones' in Peking in 1903. In traditional Chinese medicine, it was common to grind bones from the Pleistocene epoch.
Although initially dismissed as fraudulent, the authenticity of the bones was confirmed nearly thirty years later. Moreover, the oracle bones played a significant role in dispelling skepticism regarding early Chinese history, especially from scholars who had questioned the existence of the Shang dynasty.
1. Gezer Calendar
Language: Hebrew
The Gezer calendar is not a calendar as we know it today, but it does feature the earliest known example of the Hebrew language. This inscription, found on a piece of limestone and dated to the late 10th century BC, is named for the annual agricultural cycle it records.
In 1908, Irish archaeologist R.A.S. Macalister unearthed the calendar in the ancient Canaanite city of Gezer. The calendar consists of seven lines of text, each corresponding to one or two months and detailing the relevant tasks for that period. For instance, the month of Nisan is connected with the harvest of flax.
The true purpose of the Gezer calendar remains uncertain. Some scholars speculate that it could have been a schoolboy's practice or perhaps even a popular folk song.
