The Evolution of Flight and 10 Failed Efforts to Achieve It

"God withheld the ability to fly from humans to ensure they lived peaceful and calm lives, as the knowledge of flight would expose them to constant peril."

— Juan Caramuel y Lobkovitz (1606-1682)

The history of flight is marked by numerous accidents, failures, and tragedies as humans attempted to conquer the skies. In their quest to grasp the principles of flight, early innovators often sought to replicate the structure and movements of birds.

Human history is adorned with remarkable accomplishments. The creation of the automobile transformed urban and suburban environments globally; the Internet bridged distances in ways previously unimaginable; and the advent of the airplane a mere century ago enabled us to traverse oceans and unite distant parts of the Earth.

Before these breakthroughs became commonplace, their creators faced significant challenges. Early railways and gas-powered vehicles were rough, inconvenient, and inefficient. For ages, the abacus remained the sole tool for computation. Flight attempts, however, were the most perilous, as they involved controlling a body or machine mid-air, far above the ground.

Some flight endeavors are rooted in myth and legend, while others are well-documented historical events. Some designs were rudimentary, leading to inevitable failures, while others were intricate machines that ended in equally dramatic crashes. Yet, before the Wright brothers achieved the first powered flight, countless others ventured into the realm of manned aviation.

10. The Legend of King Bladud (c. 850 B.C.)

Long before Orville and Wilbur Wright achieved the first successful heavier-than-air aircraft flight in Kitty Hawk, N.C., in 1903, humans had been striving to fly for millennia. Ovid's "Metamorphoses," published at the start of the first millennium, recounts the myth of Daedalus and Icarus fleeing Crete using wings made of feathers and wax. Similarly, Roman entertainers often leapt from great heights with feathered arms, often meeting fatal ends.

The earliest recorded attempt at human flight dates back to 850 B.C. in Troja Nova, or New Troy, where the legendary King Bladud left his mark on aviation history. While evidence of his existence is scarce, Bladud remains a significant mythical figure, possibly based on a real historical person. Tales describe him as a skilled magician who purportedly discovered a cure for leprosy in Bath, a city many believe he founded.

King Bladud was also known for practicing necromancy, the art of communicating with the dead. According to legend, he used this knowledge to craft wings that attached to his arms. Bladud attempted to fly from the temple of Apollo wearing these wings, but the spirits' guidance proved flawed, leading to his fatal fall.

Following his tragic fall, Bladud was reportedly laid to rest in Troja Nova, succeeded by his son, Lear—the same king immortalized in Shakespeare's tragic play, "King Lear." Could the dramatic demise of his father have driven King Lear to madness in his later years, as he raged against the storm in the wilderness?

9. Al-Djawhari (c. 1000)

The first somewhat credible historical record of a flight attempt dates back to around A.D. 1000 in Nisabur, Arabia. The aspiring aviator was al-Djawhari, a renowned Turkish scholar from Farab.

Between 1002 and 1010 (accounts vary), al-Djawhari fastened wooden planks to his arms and ascended the roof of a tall mosque in Nisabur. Witnesses reported that his daring act attracted a large audience, to whom he declared:

Unfortunately, he did not succeed. Al-Djawhari plummeted to the ground and died, marking the first documented attempt at human flight in history.

8. Leonardo da Vinci's Complex Ornithopter (c. 1505)

Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) is globally celebrated as a master artist. Each year, millions visit the Louvre Museum in Paris, France, to admire his iconic painting, the "Mona Lisa." His drawing, "The Vitruvian Man," revolutionized the use of proportion in art. Additionally, his portrayal of Christ and his disciples in "The Last Supper" even inspired the plot of Dan Brown's bestselling novel, "The Da Vinci Code."

Leonardo is often referred to as the quintessential Renaissance man for good reason. Beyond painting, he excelled as a sculptor, anatomist, and engineer, and he foresaw inventions like the steam engine, the tank, and the submarine.

In his 30s, Leonardo developed a deep fascination with flight, and by 1505, he had amassed nearly two decades of theoretical work on the subject. It is believed that around this time, he designed a sophisticated ornithopter—a machine with flapping wings designed to imitate the movement of birds.

It remains unclear whether Leonardo ever constructed or tested his ornithopter. Many of his designs stayed confined to paper during his lifetime and were only realized much later. For example, a functional model of his early car design wasn't built until 2004 due to misinterpretations of his sketches. However, in 1550, one of Leonardo's associates, Cardanus, mentioned attempting unsuccessfully to launch the ornithopter, suggesting that Leonardo might have tested the machine with unfortunate results.

Leonardo wasn't alone in his struggles to achieve flight. To discover more about two of his contemporaries who faced similar challenges, continue reading.

7. Giovanni Battista Danti and Paolo Guidotti

Leonardo da Vinci wasn't the sole Renaissance figure to experiment with flight. Among his peers was the Italian mathematician Giovanni Battista Danti, who, like many during the Middle Ages and Early Renaissance, misinterpreted bird anatomy and overestimated the effectiveness of flapping wings. Mimicking others, he attached feathers to his arms and flapped them vigorously, hoping they possessed some magical property to enable flight. Sadly, his attempts near Lake Trasimeno resulted in dramatic crashes onto the roof of Saint Mary's Church.

Another Renaissance figure, Paolo Guidotti, who lived roughly a century after Leonardo and Giovanni, remained fixated on the bird-wing theory. He crafted wings from whalebone, covered them with feathers, and shaped them with springs. Guidotti managed to glide about 400 yards (366 meters) before crashing through a roof and fracturing his thigh. Like many of his contemporaries, he ultimately decided that painting was a far safer and more rewarding pursuit than aviation.

6. João Torto (June 20, 1540, 5 p.m.)

Portugal, a small European nation, boasts a rich aviation heritage: Efforts to achieve flight trace back to the Medieval era, and the Portuguese Air Museum was established as early as 1909, just six years after the Wright brothers' historic flight in Kitty Hawk, N.C.

One notable attempt, however, ended in failure and became a cautionary tale in aviation history.

The individual who became a footnote in Portuguese aviation history was João Torto. A genuine Renaissance figure, Torto excelled in numerous professions: he worked as a nurse, barber, certified healer and bleeder, astrologer, and educator.

Regrettably, Torto's extensive knowledge led to overconfidence, and he aspired to add another title to his repertoire—aviator.

Equipped with two sets of wings made from calico cloth attached to his arms and an eagle-shaped helmet, Torto leaped from the cathedral tower in St. Mateus square on June 20, 1540, at 5 p.m. (in front of a sizable audience, naturally) and descended a short distance to a nearby chapel.

Tragically, upon landing, his helmet shifted, covering his face and obstructing his vision. He plummeted to the ground, sustaining fatal injuries. João Torto's flight attempt ended in failure.

5. John Williams, Archbishop of York (c. 1589)

Children often dream of flying from a young age. Many of us have vivid fantasies of soaring effortlessly through the air, which explains why youngsters are captivated by superheroes like Superman, who can run, leap, and fly at incredible speeds.

Fortunately, most parents warn us that attempting to fly without an airplane, helicopter, or a trained pilot is unwise. Sadly, seven-year-old John Williams from Conway, Wales, never received this advice. While exploring the walls of Conway, he impulsively jumped toward the sea, hoping the wind would lift him. His long coat, he believed, would act like wings or a sail. According to John Hacket in 1693, the boy "suffered an unfortunate accident" and landed on a rock below, resulting in a severe injury that left him castrated. Despite this, Williams went on to become Archbishop of York and lived to the age of 78.

4. Philippe le Picard's Laborer (c. 16th Century)

Due to numerous accounts highlighting the risks of strapping wings to one's arms and plummeting from great heights, many cautionary tales about the perils of flight attempts circulated before the dawn of modern aviation. One such story was penned by a 16th-century writer named Philippe le Picard, who wrote under the pseudonym Philippe d'Alcripe, blending humor into his fable.

Le Picard's tale revolves around a French laborer, notorious in Normandy for his swearing and drinking habits. According to the fable, one day, after consuming too much curdled milk, the laborer impulsively decided to build a flying contraption for amusement. Without informing his wife (who likely would have berated him back to his senses), he cut a winnowing basket—used for separating corn kernels from husks—in half and attached it to his back. When his initial attempts to fly failed, he had a sudden inspiration: he needed a tail to mimic a bird more accurately.

As a laborer, he had a shovel nearby, which he placed between his legs and secured with his belt. Climbing a nearby pear tree, he leapt off, briefly gliding through the air before crashing headfirst to the ground and breaking his shoulder. The injury never healed properly, putting an end to his drunken, ill-advised experiments.

Although le Picard's story is fictional, such experiments were not uncommon during that period.

3. Besnier the Locksmith (1678)

The history of aviation is filled with individuals who, despite having no prior connection to flight, briefly ventured into the field. One such figure was Besnier, a locksmith from Sablé, France, who temporarily set aside his locksmithing tools to experiment with a flying machine.

Besnier displayed more practicality than the eccentric Desforges, recognizing that he lacked the necessary materials to construct a machine capable of taking off from the ground. Instead, he devised a device consisting of two wooden rods positioned over the shoulders, each fitted with wings. The rods were also connected to the pilot's feet, enabling the wings to be pulled down alternately and flap. Besnier avoided attempting to launch from the ground, instead testing his invention by jumping from chairs, tables, window sills, and eventually rooftops. While he became adept at gliding short distances, his attempts at longer flights invariably ended in failure.

2. The Marquis de Bacqueville (1742)

The Marquis de Bacqueville (c. 1680-1760) seemed to have minimal experience with flight, yet one morning in 1742, he declared his intention to fly across the Seine. Specifically, he aimed to take off from his mansion on a Parisian quay near the river, traverse 500 to 600 feet (152 to 183 meters), and land in the Jardin des Tuileries, the gardens adjacent to the palace of the same name.

A large audience gathered to witness his attempt that year. Equipped with paddle-like wings attached to his hands and feet, the marquis leapt from his mansion's terrace and glided toward the gardens. Initially, he seemed in control, but soon began to falter, ultimately crashing onto a barge's deck and breaking his leg. Conceding failure, the marquis abandoned his flying ambitions permanently.

1. Pierre Desforges (1770-1772)

The Abbé Pierre Desforges, a French clergyman born around 1723, was no stranger to controversy. In 1758, he spent nearly a year in the Bastille for writing a treatise advocating that Catholic priests and bishops should be permitted to marry. Despite this, authorities viewed him as a harmless yet obstinate eccentric. During his imprisonment, Desforges studied the mating habits of swallows, which likely sparked his later obsession with flight mechanics.

In 1770, nearly two decades before the first successful hot air balloon flight, Desforges designed a pair of wings. However, lacking confidence to test them himself, he attached the wings to a peasant and covered him in feathers. Leading the peasant to the top of a belfry, Desforges urged him to flap the wings and leap, promising they would work. When the peasant refused, Desforges abandoned the idea and focused on raising funds for a more practical flying machine.

After two years of relentless effort, Desforges finally revealed his flying machine—a six-foot (1.8-meter) gondola topped with a canopy and equipped with wings spanning nearly 20 feet (6.1 meters). He enlisted four peasants to haul the contraption to the summit of the Tour Guinette, a watchtower near his church. This time, Desforges took the pilot's seat, likely aware that rumors had spread among the peasants about clergymen seeking assistance near high places. Before a sizable audience, the peasants pushed Desforges over the edge, and he immediately plummeted to the ground. Though he escaped with only a broken arm, Baron von Grimm, a spectator, remarked that while Desforges wouldn't be accused of witchcraft, "the gondola concept might well land him in an asylum."