The Mechanics of Information Architecture

Imagine workers begin constructing a house without a blueprint. How would they determine the placement of walls, doors, and windows? How could they ensure the building can support a roof or accommodate plumbing and electrical systems? A plan is vital to guide the construction process. This plan is the architect's blueprint, which ensures everything is built correctly.

Now, picture you're launching an online store and need a website to sell your products. How do you decide what information belongs on the homepage? Where should the product catalog or company details be placed on the site, and how will your customers navigate to that information? Much like building planning, a well-thought-out website design is crucial to ensure the accessibility and clarity of the information you wish to convey.

Organizing content on a website is just one part of a wider discipline called information architecture (IA). The term 'information architecture' is defined in many ways. Since IA is constantly evolving, providing a precise definition is challenging. However, by combining insights from multiple sources, we can describe information architecture as follows:

The information architecture for the growing company we mentioned could be focused solely on its website, or it could encompass a wider range of corporate data, such as marketing materials, customer databases, and user manuals.

If this definition seems unclear, think of each piece of information like a pair of shoes. The information system would be like an online shoe store, selling a variety of shoes. The information architecture would include the sizing options, available colors, stock quantities, and pricing for each pair.

That’s a lot for an IA to manage! This article delves into the various methods and technologies that fall under the scope of information architecture, explores some of its history and key concepts, and examines the software and professional practices inspired by IA.

History of Information Architecture

For millennia, humans have developed systems to categorize information, long before the advent of computers and the Internet. In 330 B.C., the Library of Alexandria in ancient Egypt cataloged its holdings in a 120-scroll bibliography. More recently, systems like the Dewey Decimal System and the Library of Congress Classification were established to manage and access expanding library collections. [sources: Rosenfeld and Morville; Library of Congress]. You might recall using outlines to organize information when writing papers during school.

With the rise of computer networks, especially the Internet and its widespread use via the World Wide Web, the speed at which information is published has skyrocketed. Today, we have enormous amounts of data at our fingertips, and even more is added every day. These digital networks enable tasks like cross-referencing with just a click. However, the challenge of keeping everything neatly organized and easy to find seems daunting, if not outright impossible.

As information formats continue to evolve, humans consistently find new and improved methods to organize it. Richard Saul Wurman, renowned for co-creating the Technology Entertainment and Design (TED) conferences, introduced the term 'information architecture' at a 1976 American Institute of Architects (AIA) conference. He later published a book on the subject in 1997. Wurman argued that 'information design' referred more to the appearance of information than its accessibility and usage, so his term provided a more accurate reflection of how information systems function. [sources: TED, Knemeyer, Wurman]

Other terms you might encounter as alternatives to information architecture include: usability engineering, content management, content strategy, user experience (UX) design, and interaction design (IxD) [sources: Rosenfeld and Morville, Frank]. These terms, however, pertain to specific components within IA or certain technologies used to build and manage information systems, like websites.

Now that we understand the origins of information architecture, we recognize that it is both hard to define and necessary for managing the ever-expanding information landscape. Let's explore why it's so important.

Why Is Information Architecture Necessary?

To understand the importance of information architecture, think about how you would organize books on a shelf. You can only apply one organizational method at a time. For example, you could arrange books by the author's last name, by title, or even by size. Even if you use multiple methods, one must take precedence, such as sorting by author first and then by title for books by the same author.

How do you determine the arrangement of books? Ideally, you'd choose a method that makes it easiest for readers to find what they’re looking for. For a large research library, users might be more interested in finding books by subject rather than by author or title.

When it comes to organizing digital information, you typically have more options than with physical books. However, just like with books, the goal of choosing an organizational structure is to enhance user access. A system that helps some users find information quickly might make it harder, or even impossible, for others to do the same.

Given the massive and ever-growing volume of digital data, information architecture is crucial to ensure users can quickly find what they need. A company that uses the right IA for its information system can see benefits such as reduced operational costs, as employees spend less time searching for or duplicating information they couldn't find [source: Rosenfeld and Morville].

In 2009, Jared Spool shared an insightful example of how simply repositioning the login form on a website resulted in an additional $300,000,000 in sales within a year. Spool, who was part of a team testing user interactions with the site’s IA, found that allowing returning customers to log in before shopping made the process smoother and increased their spending. Eliminating the need for new customers to register also led to more completed transactions. These small changes to the IA led to a noticeable sales boost within the first week [source: Spool].

Now that we understand why IA is so important, how do we begin to apply it? Since IA covers a wide range of topics, let's start by examining some core concepts of information architecture before exploring the methods and technologies that bring these ideas to life.

Core Information Architecture Concepts

As previously discussed, information architecture is commonly viewed as a model (or the process of creating this model) for organizing and managing an information space or a set of related data. This model outlines the guidelines for how information should be stored, connected, accessed, and displayed. To fully capture the essence of IA, it's important to explore a few core concepts within the discipline of information architecture.

Rosenfeld and Morville are the authors behind the widely referenced book, 'Information Architecture for the World Wide Web.' Much like other O'Reilly publications, the cover features an animal illustration. Due to its prominence in the IA field, this book has come to be known by many as the 'polar bear book.' Many IA professionals regard this book and its authors as key figures in the field of information architecture.

In the 2002 edition, the authors explain that information architecture is composed of three main elements: content, users, and context [source: Rosenfeld and Morville]. Content can include various forms such as text, numerical data, images, and videos. Users are the target audience, and IA takes into account how they experience and search for information (known as information-seeking behavior). Context includes factors such as goals, technology, company culture, and political influences.

In a lecture on information architecture at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Gary Marchionini, professor and dean of the university's School of Information and Library Science, introduced the concept of a basic unit of information within an IA, which he referred to as a package [source: Marchionini]. A package can be a block of text, an image, a video, or any similar data unit. Information architecture involves developing a strategy for determining what constitutes these packages and how they are managed and accessed within a larger information system. For clarity, this article adopts Marchionini's definition in the same context.

In information architecture, one important concept is attributes. Attributes are the characteristics we use to define or describe something, much like we might describe a person by their height, weight, or gender. Information also has attributes that define its packages or the elements within them. These could include physical attributes, like the number of characters in a paragraph, or abstract attributes, such as the context in which the paragraph should be presented. For an information architecture to function effectively, these attributes should be applied consistently across all packages and their contents, and the IA may also define rules about how attributes are interconnected.

Components Used in Information Architecture

Having covered the foundational principles of information architecture, let's now take a closer look at the specific components and methods that architects use to put these concepts into practice. The polar bear book, which we referred to earlier, outlines four essential components that make up an information architecture system:

Additional components related to information architecture arise from the technology used to implement the information system in practice. For example, when storing information in a database, the architecture must include a querying mechanism to retrieve specific data. When building a website, accessing the information requires user interface elements such as browsing, scrolling, and clicking to interact with the content.

Given the vastness of the task, an information architect must be a versatile professional, much like a jack-of-all-trades. When building a house, a traditional architect must be well-versed in established standards and legal regulations to ensure that builders understand the plans, that the construction will pass necessary inspections, and that the home will be both safe and livable. Similarly, an information architect must possess a broad understanding of industry standards related to creating, storing, accessing, and presenting digital information. These standards could include Unified Modeling Language (UML), Hypertext Markup Language (HTML), Cascading Style Sheets (CSS), and JavaScript. Additionally, familiarity with common practices such as controlled vocabularies and metadata is crucial to ensure each category label is used with precise consistency.

Designing an Information Architecture

To bring all the elements together, an information architect typically begins by documenting the IA. This process mirrors how architects document detailed plans for buildings in their blueprints. Documentation involves creating a written record of the IA, ensuring that all involved professionals follow a clear set of guidelines when setting up the information system. This record also serves as a reference for ongoing maintenance, helping to preserve the integrity of the IA design over time.

The architect may document several key elements, including descriptions of various package types and their attributes, diagrams showing how the packages are interconnected, flowcharts illustrating how users make decisions and navigate between packages, and webpage layout models known as wireframes that outline how information should be displayed to users. If the new or updated IA designs require approval from a manager or board before they are implemented, architects may also prepare slide presentations to effectively present the plan in meetings.

In the early stages of development or when quick adjustments are needed, architects often begin by sketching out the components of Information Architecture (IA) on paper, sticky notes, or whiteboards [source: Frank]. As the design becomes clearer and more defined, architects may turn to modeling software to create digital representations of the IA and its elements. For instance, tools like Visio, OmniGraffle, and Dia can be used to design flowcharts showing how users interact with information or diagrams illustrating how information is interconnected. These visuals can then be included in the final IA documentation, often utilizing desktop publishing tools like Adobe Illustrator.

To support their design process, architects can leverage software specifically created for Information Architecture (IA). Below are some examples of modeling software used in website development:

Once a design has been established, information architects proceed to the next phase: implementing the design. Many IA professionals are actively involved in all or part of the technical processes required to bring their designs to life. Let's examine the steps involved in this implementation process.

Putting Information Architecture into Action

Information architecture software can be divided into two main categories: the modeling software discussed earlier and the information system software, which is used to assemble the system according to the architect's design.

Information system software simplifies the implementation of essential features commonly found in an IA. For instance, Content Management System (CMS) software combines the capabilities of a file system and a library. Users of CMS can check out, modify, and check in content while keeping track of revisions over time and accessing previous versions when needed. Additionally, the CMS or another software can retrieve content as required, such as adding it to a document or displaying it on a web page.

Two widely-used CMS platforms that manage and deliver web content are Drupal and Alfresco. Drupal is a free, open source CMS mainly built with Hypertext Preprocessor Language (PHP). Known for its flexibility, Drupal's primary appeal lies in its built-in features and free extensions, which are essential for implementing IA on a website [source: Feiler]. Alfresco, a subscription-based CMS, supports a broader IA beyond web content, including tools for managing an organization's internal documents and records.

In addition to CMSes, other software can be employed to implement part or all of an IA. For example, blogging platforms such as WordPress and wiki software like MediaWiki function similarly to CMSes, but offer more limited options for storing, categorizing, and presenting information. A Document Management System (DMS), like KnowledgeTree, is another option. It preserves the format of documents while continuing to track authorship and timestamps for each version. For searching, DMSes typically use tags rather than searching within the document's content.

As information evolves to meet the changing needs of users, information architects must assess when the volume or type of content no longer fits the current IA, or when there is a shift in its context or user base. When adjustments to the IA are needed, the architect must consider how to update the model as well as whether the software managing the information system requires updates.

The Culture of Information Architecture

The culture surrounding information architecture began to take shape with the rapid expansion of the Web in the 1990s, further fueled by the release of Richard Saul Wurman's book, "Information Architects," in 1996. Peter Morville, mentioned earlier, recalls spirited conversations with peers about applying library and information science (LIS) principles to Wurman’s idea of information architecture. When Morville co-authored a book with Louis Rosenfeld, published by O'Reilly, the field gained more traction, eventually leading to Richard Hill from the American Society for Information Science and Technology (ASIS&T) organizing the first Information Architecture Summit two years later.

Since its inception in 2000, ASIS&T has organized the IA Summit annually [source: ASIS&T]. The conference brings together IA thought leaders and professionals, offering workshops led by innovators in the field. The 2011 conference addressed key topics in information architecture, exploring the latest techniques and developments, as well as discussing the future direction of IA.

The growing enthusiasm for information architecture has given rise to other organizations and global conferences. Notable international gatherings include the European Information Architecture (EuroIA) summit and Australia’s Information Architecture Conference (Oz-IA) [sources: EuroIA, Oz-IA]. The Information Architecture Institute (IAI) is a professional body that strives to advance IA. The IAI also hosts an annual conference called IDEA: Information Design Experience Access [source: IAI].

Who exactly is an information architect? Adelle Frank of Emory University in Atlanta has embraced her passion for IA through managing the data behind the Emory College website. She has attended two IA Summit conferences and describes the typical IA as a "quirky, intelligent individual who combines tech-savvy with social skills and creativity." Frank notes that IA enthusiasts love the challenge of organizing the chaos of information overload, ultimately enhancing how people engage with the Internet [source: Frank].

Although this article has explored the history, principles, methods, and technologies that shape information architecture, it has merely touched the tip of the iceberg. IA is an expansive field with a wealth of resources for both beginners and seasoned architects. For more in-depth insights, join the discussion in this site’s user interaction IA and proceed to the next page.