The Vanishing Act of Water Fountains: Why Their Revival is Essential

In the early 2000s, James Salzman, a UCLA environmental law professor, was teaching his students about the improved safety of public water systems when he observed a peculiar trend. Half the class had opted for bottled water instead of using the building's drinking fountains.

The situation remains unchanged today. "Bottled water sales have now surpassed those of soft drinks," says Salzman, author of "Drinking Water: A History."

In today's era, many Americans prefer purchasing single-use disposable plastic bottles for hydration over using drinking fountains, a centuries-old method of providing water. This technology is deemed so vital for health that the International Plumbing Code mandates one fountain per 100 occupants in schools and offices.

Although drinking fountains haven't disappeared entirely from public spaces — many regulations still require them in buildings — their future appears uncertain. If you've ever struggled to find a fountain in a large store or mall, only to discover it hidden in a remote corner, you might feel differently. Some consider them outdated, as reflected in a recent article titled, "Do we need the commercial office drinking fountain?" in an architectural magazine.

The exact number of drinking fountains in U.S. public and private spaces is unclear, but "There are definitely fewer than before," says Peter H. Gleick via email. He is the co-founder and president emeritus of the Pacific Institute and wrote "Bottled and Sold: The Story Behind Our Obsession with Bottled Water."

Despite appearing as obsolete as telephone booths, drinking fountains are experiencing a resurgence due to growing concerns about the environmental impact of disposable plastic bottles.

The History of Drinking Fountains

As Gleick explains in his book, public drinking fountains trace their origins to ancient Greece, where spring-fed fountains adorned temples and were dedicated to deities. Pausanias, a second-century B.C.E. geographer, even claimed that a settlement couldn't be called a city without a public fountain. The Romans advanced this concept, constructing aqueducts to bring water from distant springs to urban fountains. However, after the Roman Empire's decline, these fountains deteriorated, forcing people to rely on polluted wells and rivers for centuries.

In mid-19th century London, a transformation began, as Gleick recounts. The Metropolitan Free Drinking Fountain Association emerged, constructing fountains equipped with filters to guarantee "the perfect purity and coldness of the water." Their first fountain, unveiled at a London church in April 1859, became a sensation, drawing 7,000 users daily. By 1879, nearly 800 fountains served 300,000 people each day. Philanthropist Sir Richard Wallace also commissioned sculptor Charles-Auguste Lebourg to design fountains in Paris, many of which remain operational today, according to La Société des Fontaines Wallace.

The U.S. also embraced drinking fountains. Detroit installed seven public fountains in 1871, with nine more added due to high demand. P.T. Barnum donated a fountain to his hometown, Bethel, Connecticut, in 1881, while timber magnate Simon Benson installed 20 fountains to offer his workers an alternative to alcohol, as noted in Gleick's book. In New York City, designers Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux incorporated decorative fountains into Central Park, including one that used blocks of ice to cool water during summer.

In the early 20th century, Halsey W. Taylor, a Packard Motor Company plant superintendent, revolutionized indoor drinking fountains after observing dysentery outbreaks among workers. Believing unsanitary water was the cause — which had tragically claimed his father's life — Taylor developed safer fountain technology. His invention, the "double bubbler," featured two water streams in an arc, preventing users from touching the faucet and reducing microbial exposure, as noted by Ohio History Central. Today, his namesake brand is part of Elkay, a top drinking fountain manufacturer.

"Public water fountains symbolized social progress and equality as cities grew and water quality improved. Everyone, regardless of status, had access to the same clean water," says Gleick, who recalls using fountains in New York City schools and playgrounds.

Water fountains have also served as societal symbols, reflecting cultural shifts. In the Southern U.S., whites-only drinking fountains highlighted racial segregation until the Civil Rights Act of 1964 outlawed such practices. Additionally, the 1990 Americans with Disabilities Act required fountains to be accessible to people in wheelchairs, often achieved through high-low fountain designs with dual heights.

Competition From Bottled Water

During the 1970s and 1980s, bottled water companies launched aggressive marketing campaigns, capitalizing on public fears of pollution, lead contamination, and waterborne diseases. Some brands even claimed public water systems were unsafe, as highlighted in this 2010 National Public Radio story. While many assumed bottled spring water was healthier, a Natural Resources Defense Council study in 1999 revealed that bottled water wasn't necessarily cleaner or safer than tap water. In fact, some brands exceeded state health limits for harmful chemicals. Tap water, however, is regulated more strictly, with legal limits on over 90 contaminants.

Unlike drinking fountains, bottled water offered profitability, making it attractive to venues that could sell it. In 2007, the University of Central Florida opened a new stadium without any drinking fountains, as reported by the Orlando Sentinel. Fans could only buy water from vendors. After public backlash and a game where vendors ran out of water, the university added 50 drinking fountains.

Although many state and local regulations still require drinking fountains, they don't mandate that building owners make them easily accessible.

Salzman categorizes the built environment into three groups. "The first includes places like shopping malls and airports," he explains. "In areas with food courts, drinking fountains are often hidden near restrooms or in obscure locations to avoid competing with bottled water sales."

"The second category includes places like libraries, hospitals, and schools, where facility managers genuinely care about keeping people hydrated," Salzman explains. These locations will continue to offer plenty of drinking fountains.

The third group encompasses parks and public buildings. "The main issue here is maintenance," Salzman notes. "You'll find drinking fountains, but many are non-functional. This is something your readers will likely notice often, as the cost of repairs is often neglected."

Non-working fountains aren't a high priority because there's little public demand for their repair these days, he adds.

"This ties into the broader idea that people's expectations are shifting," Salzman says. "Hydration is increasingly viewed as a personal duty rather than a public one, which wasn't always the case."

Drinking Fountains Are More Environmentally Friendly

The disappearance of water fountains would harm the environment significantly. Gleick highlights that bottled water "creates a substantial plastic, energy, and greenhouse gas footprint, along with generating waste. The energy required to produce and transport plastic bottles globally is enormous."

A 2009 paper in Environmental Research Letters, co-authored by Gleick and Heather Cooley, revealed that producing enough plastic bottles to meet global annual demand consumed 1 million tons (0.9 million metric tons) of PET plastic, equivalent to 50 million barrels of oil. In the U.S., over 60 million bottles are discarded daily, exacerbating plastic pollution.

However, growing environmental awareness is fueling a resurgence of drinking fountains.

"Some locations, like airports, have seen minor improvements with the introduction of new fountain designs, particularly those designed to fill reusable water bottles, which are increasingly popular," Gleick states. A 2018 market study forecasted steady growth in fountain sales, driven largely by the rise of bottle-filling stations.

Elkay offers a cutting-edge refilling station featuring antimicrobial plastic and touchless operation. The company reports that since introducing these stations a decade ago, they've prevented over 40 billion single-use bottles from entering landfills.