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In ancient times, trade was a key factor determining whether a civilization would thrive or remain in obscurity. Its success not only brought prosperity but also transformed the dynamics of trade. Despite this, there are still many unknowns about the merchants, their vast networks, and the goods they exchanged.
Recent discoveries have filled in some of these gaps, yet they've only heightened the intrigue surrounding the phenomenon. It was revealed that the same goods had varying worth among different cultures, what were once considered ordinary items became luxuries for the wealthy, and intersocietal and international connections were more widespread than ever imagined.
However, trade wasn’t without its darker consequences. It facilitated the spread of diseases and opened doors for conquest and exploitation.
10. A Mayan Market Hub
For years, it was widely believed by scholars that the Maya didn’t engage in marketplace activities. This idea arose from the assumption that the elite provided food to the general population in exchange for loyalty and service, thereby negating the need for trade.
However, Mayan cities had a population far greater than what their farms could sustain. Even researchers could not overlook this. Furthermore, between AD 300–900, settlements featured open spaces with no apparent function. These areas were large enough to have served as marketplaces, and in 2007, samples were taken for comparison with those from a modern market.
The first step involved collecting soil samples from Chunchucmil, located in the Yucatan peninsula. In the lab, tests searched for phosphorus, a chemical common to all organic material. Markets leave behind remnants of food, and as they decompose, phosphorus persists in the soil.
The findings revealed that the open spaces contained up to 40 times more phosphorus than Mayan streets or patios. The last market still trading on natural earth in Guatemala showed a similar chemical signature to the ancient samples. This evidence confirmed that the Maya had a market-based economy.
9. Lemons for the Elite
Lemons were once the equivalent of today’s caviar. In ancient Rome, they were a luxury only accessible to those with wealth. For over a millennium, the Mediterranean knew only two citrus fruits—the citron and the lemon. The lemon was so rare in Rome that it came with a hefty price tag and was highly coveted by the affluent for its taste and medicinal qualities.
A study conducted in 2017 revealed that lemons arrived in the Mediterranean about 400 years after the citron had already made its mark. The earliest evidence of lemons in Rome was found in the Roman Forum, with remnants dating from the late first century BC to the early first century AD.
Over time, other citrus fruits made their way from Southeast Asia, including oranges, mandarins, limes, and pomelos. However, these fruits were considered common cash crops, while the lemon and citron remained exclusive, prized only by the wealthy.
8. Ireland Placed Higher Value on Foreign Gold
A surprising discovery was made when a recent study investigated Irish gold. The artifacts, dating back to the Bronze Age as early as 2500 BC, were found to be made from gold that didn’t originate locally. It’s believed the gold came from Cornwall. Ireland’s own gold resources were abundant and easily accessible, making imports unnecessary.
Nevertheless, goldsmiths appeared to have preferred using “foreign” gold. Although the gold was essentially the same, imported Cornish gold seemed to add an extra layer of prestige to the artifacts. Around the same period, Cornwall and southern Britain saw a decline in local gold, suggesting that the primary value placed on it was for trade purposes.
In modern times, gold carries a universal financial value. However, the Irish-Cornwall gold trade demonstrates that in ancient times, the precious metal held various meanings for different cultures—whether as a trade commodity, a foreign item, a religious symbol, or even as something imbued with mystical powers. Regardless of its purpose, its value never diminished, even when its significance remained debated.
7. The Niizawa Senzuka Dish
In 2014, a small glass plate uncovered an unexpected ancient trade route. The 15-centimeter (5.9-inch) dish, found in a mound in Japan, was discovered at Niizawa Senzuka, a historically significant burial site. The mound, which contained the plate, was constructed in the late fifth century AD.
Tests showed that the dark blue glass was actually several centuries older and originated from the Roman Mediterranean. It contained lime and silica in proportions almost identical to glass from that era and region.
The discovery of antimony in the plate helped pinpoint its age. The Romans ceased using this metallic element by the second century. Though it’s unclear exactly when the plate was crafted, it must have been made during or prior to the time when antimony fell out of favor.
The intricate design suggested that the plate was painted in Persia before it eventually reached Japan. This discovery not only unveils trade connections between the Japanese and Romans but also reveals that international trade between the East and West began much earlier than previously thought.
6. Chinese Merchants Traded with Aboriginals
While the Japanese may have imported Roman plates, the Chinese made contact with an Aboriginal community. In 2014, a single coin was discovered on Elcho Island. The coin was quickly identified as a brass piece minted in China between 1736 and 1795 during the Qing dynasty.
The discovery, the first of its kind in Northern Australia, provides evidence of contact between the island's remote inhabitants and China. It is believed that this trade occurred in the 1700s and is the sole proof of the Chinese trepang trade reaching this part of Australia.
The buyers of the trepang were likely not ethnically Chinese, but rather the Macassan people from Indonesia. They served as intermediaries, trading sea cucumbers with the Chinese.
The coin might be the first tangible link to trade with China, but it’s not new information to the Aboriginal community. Their oral history recounts trade with Chinese merchants, mentioning how the coins made excellent fishing weights.
5. Society of Chocolate Enthusiasts
Chocolate was a prized drink in ancient Mesoamerica. While much is known about the Maya and Aztecs’ love for the cacao bean, which was consumed as a frothy liquid, less was understood about its presence in the American Southwest.
In recent research, 75 clay pots were studied from two elite sites—Pueblo Bonito (circa AD 900) and Los Muertos in Arizona (14th century). An additional eight pots came from lower-class households.
The researchers were searching for the distinctive markers of chocolate—theophylline, caffeine, and theobromine. Their presence was undeniable. Two-thirds of the pots from elite households and all eight of those from commoners tested positive.
This discovery revealed that chocolate was enjoyed by all social classes and was imported in large quantities. Distance was no obstacle for these early chocolate lovers, as the trade routes between the regions were vast. The cacao was likely exchanged for turquoise, a material that gained popularity in Mesoamerica (Mexico and Central America) around AD 900.
4. The Second Otzi Axe
Otzi became famous when his mummified body was uncovered in 1991 at the Italian-Austrian border. Among his possessions was a finely crafted copper axe. Analysis showed the metal originated in Southern Tuscany, suggesting a trade route between the Alps and central Italy—a long-distance exchange once thought impossible 5,300 years ago.
In 2017, another copper axe surfaced. While it wasn't found anywhere near Otzi's location, it bore a connection to his weapon. Unearthed in Zug-Riedmatt, Switzerland, it had the same design as Otzi's axe. Though half the size, the blade was also crafted from copper sourced from Southern Tuscany.
The locations of both axes were hundreds of miles apart from their shared origin. Only long-distance trade could account for such differences in where they were found and their common source. The newly discovered axe, considered both a weapon and a versatile tool, was made between 5,100 and 5,300 years ago, aligning with the period during which Otzi lived.
3. Woman From Hoxne
The Vikings were known for spreading more than just fear and combs—they might have also introduced leprosy to southeastern England. These marauders traded a valuable commodity—red squirrels. Their fur and meat were highly prized, and some of the animals were even kept as pets.
Around 30 years ago, in the village of Hoxne, the remains of a woman’s skull were uncovered. She had passed away long ago, sometime between AD 885 and AD 1015. Her face displayed severe disfigurement, and recent bone analysis revealed an unusual strain of leprosy. This strain didn’t spread to other parts of England until centuries later. However, during her lifetime, it had already ravaged Scandinavia, particularly Denmark and Sweden—the Viking homelands.
Determining the exact source of the woman’s leprosy is difficult. However, given the origins of the strain, it is likely she contracted it through the red squirrel trade, as the animals were affected by a closely related version of the disease.
The Hoxne woman wasn’t the only one affected. It seems that leprosy continued to linger in southeastern England for centuries. Another individual, a man from Great Chesterford, contracted the same strain of the disease and died between AD 415 and AD 545.
2. Vikings Were Antler Salesmen
The Viking Age is traditionally said to have begun in June 793 when Norwegian raiders attacked the English island of Lindisfarne. However, a 2015 study of combs crafted from reindeer antlers is rewriting this story, suggesting that the Vikings might have had a more peaceful start than previously thought.
These combs were discovered in Ribe, one of Denmark’s oldest settlements and a major trading hub. Reindeer aren’t native to Denmark, but their antlers were commonly found across Norway. Long before the Vikings became known for their raids, they likely developed their renowned maritime abilities by transporting antlers to the bustling markets of Ribe. During this period, antler combs were a highly sought-after commodity.
This shifts the start of the Viking Age back to around 725, when Norwegians first became skilled traders. This idea supports an older theory suggesting that coastal trade helped shape the violent expeditions the Vikings later became known for. Prior to linking the combs to Norway, there was little evidence to suggest Scandinavians were active in Ribe so early on. Now it’s believed that the Vikings' early visits to trading towns may have given them the training and motivation to shift from peaceful trade to raiding neighboring lands.
1. Ancient Roman Bar Codes
Monte Testaccio is a man-made hill located in central Rome, composed of an astonishing 25 million clay shards. These fragments were once part of countless amphorae, which were broken and piled together over the course of three centuries.
In 2015, archaeologists studied the largest Roman trash heap in the world. However, to those fascinated by history, this mound is more of a treasure chest, revealing fascinating details about what the Romans transported in these large jars. These weren’t small mugs, either. Each amphora weighed 30 kilograms (66 lbs) when empty, and when filled with wine, fish sauce, or olive oil, they could exceed 100 kilograms (220 lbs).
Unlike most ancient pottery, there’s no guessing when it comes to the contents of these vessels. Each amphora had an inscription acting like a bar code, providing crucial details such as the content, weight, origin, maker, departure and arrival dates, importer’s name, and taxes paid. This wealth of information allowed scientists to map out the intricate Mediterranean trade routes that brought goods into Rome almost 2,000 years ago.
The 49-meter-high (160 ft) mound of Monte Testaccio is still in use today, albeit for very different purposes. Caves dug into the base of the hill now serve as storage rooms, wine cellars, nightclubs, and restaurants.
