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The Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) is a global evaluation that assesses the academic abilities of 15-year-old students worldwide. PISA is widely regarded as an important program, allowing policymakers to evaluate the quality of education in various countries. It measures skills in reading, mathematics, and science. After the release of the 2010 PISA test results, it became apparent that both the United States and the United Kingdom must implement significant improvements in their education systems.
South Korea ranked first in math and reading, third in science. Finland secured second place in math and reading, and first in science. Canada came in fifth place for math and science, third in reading. New Zealand ranked fourth in reading and science, and seventh in math. The United States ranked 14th in reading, 25th in math, and 17th in science. The United Kingdom ranked 20th in reading, 22nd in math, and 11th in science. Students in both the US and UK are not receiving instruction in crucial subjects like space, science, technology, disease, warfare, and the atmosphere. This article will delve into the top ten facts that should be included in school curricula.
10. Human Senses
In schools, it is commonly taught that humans possess five senses: hearing, sight, touch, smell, and taste. However, humans actually have more than five senses, with the total number ranging from nine to over twenty. Senses, by definition, are physiological functions in organisms that provide data for perception. They are feelings that help us navigate our surroundings. In humans, the central nervous system, comprising the brain, spinal cord, and retina, plays a vital role in processing these senses. Each sense has its dedicated area within the nervous system. Beyond the classic five, humans can also sense temperature changes (thermoception), balance (equilibrioception), acceleration (kinesthesioception), body and limb position (proprioception), and pain (nociception).
Other inherent human abilities include sensing time, itching, pressure, hunger, thirst, the feeling of a full stomach, the urge to urinate, the need to defecate, and blood carbon dioxide levels. Additionally, humans have numerous internal senses. One example is the chemoreceptor trigger zone in the brain, which receives input from the bloodstream and communicates with the vomiting center. Cutaneous receptors in the skin respond not only to touch, pressure, and temperature but also to emotions such as embarrassment, which causes the skin to blush. Pulmonary stretch receptors, found in the lungs, regulate breathing. The five traditional senses of hearing, sight, touch, smell, and taste were first identified by Aristotle over 2400 years ago. Perhaps it is time to update elementary school textbooks to include a more comprehensive discussion of human sensory capabilities.
9. Large Hadron Collider
In most general education classes, students aren't taught the basic principles of physics, which leads to a lack of understanding about our galaxy. For instance, a black hole is a region in space where gravity is so powerful that neither matter nor radiation can escape. Black holes are believed to be at the centers of most galaxies. There is substantial evidence suggesting that a black hole weighing more than 4 million times the mass of the Sun exists in the heart of our Milky Way.
Students should be educated on the world’s progress in high-energy technology. The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) stands as the largest and most powerful particle accelerator on Earth. Situated 175 meters (574 feet) beneath the Franco-Swiss border near Geneva, Switzerland, the LHC was constructed by the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) to test various predictions in high-energy physics. It was built by more than 10,000 scientists and engineers from over 100 countries, with contributions from hundreds of universities and laboratories.
On March 30, 2010, the first planned collisions occurred between two TeV beams, setting a new world record for the highest-energy man-made particle collision. By 2014, the Large Hadron Collider was expected to operate at full capacity (7 TeV per beam). The goal is for the machine to replicate the energy seen in space, answering key scientific questions. Researchers hope to uncover the mysterious Higgs boson particle, explore extra dimensions, and investigate dark matter, which makes up 23% of the universe’s mass. Other experiments will also examine why gravity is weaker than the other three fundamental forces.
On May 24, 2011, it was reported that the Large Hadron Collider successfully created quark-gluon plasma, the densest form of matter known, second only to black holes. With a budget of 7.5 billion euros, the LHC is one of the most expensive scientific instruments ever constructed. These experiments have ignited fears among the public about potential doomsday scenarios, such as the creation of stable microscopic black holes. In recent years, the collider has gained fame in science fiction, with some claiming it could enable time travel.
8. Maurice Hilleman
Maurice Hilleman is widely acknowledged as the scientist who saved more lives than anyone else in the 20th century. He was an American microbiologist responsible for developing more than three dozen vaccines. Born in 1909 near Miles City, Montana, Hilleman endured great loss early in life when his twin sister died at birth and his mother passed away just two days later. He earned his Ph.D. in microbiology from the University of Chicago in 1941. Between 1948 and 1958, Hilleman began studying the influenza virus, which was notably responsible for the devastating 1918 Spanish flu pandemic. This flu infected approximately 550 million people, or 32% of the global population, and claimed the lives of between 50 and 100 million individuals, making it one of history's deadliest disasters.
During the 1950s, Maurice Hilleman made the groundbreaking discovery that genetic changes occur in the influenza virus as it mutates, a process known as shift and drift. This insight led him to predict that an outbreak in Hong Kong could potentially result in a global pandemic. Following this intuition, Hilleman identified a new strain of influenza, developed a vaccine for it, and distributed 40 million doses worldwide. In 1957, he joined the research team at Merck & Co. in West Point, Pennsylvania, where he went on to create over 40 experimental and licensed vaccines for both humans and animals. In 1963, after his daughter Jeryl Lynn contracted the mumps, Hilleman used material from her to develop a mumps vaccine that continues to be in use today.
Maurice Hilleman and his team of researchers were behind the creation of vaccines for a wide range of diseases, including measles, mumps, Hepatitis A, Hepatitis B, chickenpox, meningitis, pneumonia, and Haemophilus influenzae bacteria. He also contributed to the discovery of adenoviruses that cause colds, various hepatitis viruses, and the cancer-causing SV40 virus. Hilleman viewed his work on Hepatitis B as his most significant achievement. His laboratory was known for its highly disciplined military-like structure, and Hilleman never named any vaccine after himself. As one of his colleagues stated, 'If I had to name a person who has done more for the benefit of human health, with less recognition than anyone else, it would be Maurice Hilleman.' He passed away on April 11, 2005, at the age of 85.
7. Common Misconceptions
It's time to address some common misconceptions. First, contrary to popular belief, Vikings never wore horns on their helmets. Furthermore, Marie Antoinette, the Queen of France during the French Revolution, never uttered the phrase 'let them eat cake' when she learned that the French peasants were starving. Another myth is that George Washington had wooden teeth—this is false. His dentures were made of materials like gold, hippopotamus ivory, lead, and animal teeth, including those of horses and donkeys. The signing of the Declaration of Independence took place on August 2, 1776, not July 4. Finally, Napoleon Bonaparte was not unusually short compared to other French men, and he did not have a 'Napoleon complex.'
There are many misconceptions to clear up. For instance, you don’t have to wait 24 hours to file a missing person's report—this is a myth. In the U.S., entrapment laws don’t require police officers to identify themselves. Additionally, sushi does not mean 'raw fish,' and not all sushi contains raw fish. The idea that swallowed chewing gum takes seven years to digest is simply false; while it's mostly indigestible, it still passes through the digestive system. Similarly, using LSD more than seven times does not result in insanity, and smoking one joint of marijuana doesn’t carry the same carcinogenic risk as smoking an entire cigarette. Research from the University of California suggests that marijuana users are no more likely to develop lung cancer than non-smokers.
Some studies suggest that marijuana may even reduce the risk of certain cancers by as much as 61%. It's a common myth that the Great Wall of China is the only human-made structure visible from space, but this is untrue. In fact, only city lights are reported to be visible from the Moon. As for the seasons, they aren’t caused by the Earth’s proximity to the Sun during summer; they are a result of Earth’s tilt on its axis. Another misconception is that meteorites are hot when they land—they’re actually cold. Additionally, the idea that a duck's quack doesn't echo is false. Lastly, houseflies don’t live only 24 hours; their lifespan typically ranges from 20 to 30 days.
Bulls are not angered by the color red, as often depicted by professional matadors. It’s actually the movement of the fabric that irritates the bull and triggers it to charge. Similarly, shaving does not cause hair to grow back thicker or darker. When hair is never cut, it has a tapered end, but after cutting, the taper is lost, which causes the hair to feel sharper. Another misconception is that alcohol warms up the body, when in fact it doesn’t. Also, eating right before swimming does not increase the risk of cramps or drowning. Drowning is often misunderstood to be a violent struggle, but in reality, it's a much quieter process, with no visible signs of distress in the victim.
6. Creutzfeldt–Jakob Disease
Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease (CJD) is a fatal degenerative disorder that affects the brain, causing irreversible damage. It's commonly known as mad cow disease in humans, as it is believed to be caused by the bovine spongiform encephalopathy virus. When a person is affected by CJD, the brain develops holes, resulting in a sponge-like appearance of the tissue. This is due to prions, infectious proteins that misfold and replicate within the brain. The initial symptoms of CJD include dementia, memory loss, personality changes, and hallucinations. As the disease progresses, individuals experience speech problems, involuntary movements, loss of coordination, altered gait, and seizures. Most individuals succumb to the disease within six months of diagnosis.
Other prion diseases include Gerstmann–Straussler–Scheinker syndrome (GSS), fatal familial insomnia (FFI), and kuru. Humans can contract CJD through consumption of infected animal products, particularly from cows with the bovine form of the disease. A concerning discovery in 2004, published in The Lancet, revealed that CJD could also be transmitted through blood transfusions. This revelation alarmed health officials, as it raised concerns about a potential epidemic. In response, the UK government implemented a ban on blood donations from anyone who had received a blood transfusion since 1980.
On May 28, 2002, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) implemented a policy excluding blood donors who had spent at least six months in certain European countries, including the United Kingdom, between 1980 and 1996. In New Zealand, anyone who lived in the UK, France, or the Republic of Ireland for a cumulative six months between 1980 and 1996 is also banned from donating blood. The FDA also prohibited the import of donor sperm to the U.S. due to the risk of Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease transmission.
Although there hasn't been a major outbreak of CJD in humans yet, research from University College London suggests that the symptoms of Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease may take decades to manifest, with a possible delay of 40-50 years. Similar prion diseases, like kuru, have demonstrated long incubation periods. If this holds true, humanity might face a significant outbreak of CJD in the future. Such an outbreak would be particularly concerning, as it could spread through blood transfusions and artificial insemination. As of 2011, no effective treatment for CJD has been discovered, and it remains a fatal condition. Ongoing research continues to explore the nature and risks of this disorder.
5. Norwegian Heavy Water Sabotage
The World War II history taught in American high schools often lacks depth. It is essential that mandatory classes be introduced to explore the war's global impact. One critical operation that contributed to the defeat of Nazi Germany and the Axis Powers will be discussed here. In 1938, German chemist Otto Hahn discovered nuclear fission, the process required for producing nuclear power and weapons. Hahn, often called "the father of nuclear chemistry" and the "founder of the atomic age," led the charge in nuclear research. By 1939, Germany had made substantial progress in developing nuclear weapons, complete with reactors and facilities for uranium production and heavy water production, along with uranium isotope separation.
During World War II, the Allied forces made it a top priority to disrupt Germany's nuclear program. The Norwegian heavy water sabotage was a coordinated effort by Norwegian soldiers to prevent the Nazis from acquiring deuterium oxide (heavy water), which could be used in nuclear weapon production. In 1934, Norsk Hydro, a Norwegian company, built the first commercial plant capable of producing heavy water as a byproduct of fertilizer production. The plant was located at the Vemork power station near the Rjukan waterfall in Telemark, Norway. Before the German invasion on April 9, 1940, a portion of the heavy water was removed, but a substantial amount remained under Nazi control after they occupied Norway.
To counter the nuclear threat, a Norwegian resistance movement was established. In early 1943, Operation Gunnerside was carried out by Allied forces. A team of Norwegian commandos, trained by the Special Operations Executive (SOE), successfully infiltrated the facility and destroyed the heavy water production site using explosives. This ground mission was followed by a series of bombing raids by the Allies. In retaliation, the Germans decided to shut down the plant and transport the remaining heavy water to Germany. However, Norwegian resistance forces managed to sink the SF Hydro on Lake Tinnsjo to prevent the Germans from removing the remaining stockpiles. In hindsight, this operation is regarded as one of the most successful acts of sabotage during World War II and played a critical role in halting the Nazi nuclear program.
4. Stuxnet
Understanding the history of cyber warfare is crucial. Cyber warfare refers to politically motivated hacking activities aimed at sabotage and espionage. Several major organizations have been formed to study cyber attacks. Stuxnet is known as the most intricate and advanced malware ever created. The worm targets industrial software and equipment, infiltrating and spying on industrial systems. It is the first known malware to incorporate a programmable logic controller (PLC) rootkit.
Stuxnet was specifically created to infiltrate Siemens Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems, which monitor and control industrial processes, including nuclear material production. In 2010, multiple variants of Stuxnet were discovered in five Iranian organizations. The main target of the attack was the uranium enrichment facility at Natanz. After the virus was identified, the Russian cybersecurity firm Kaspersky Lab hypothesized that such a sophisticated attack could only have been executed with the support of a nation-state, such as Israel or the United States.
Gary Samore, the White House Coordinator for Weapons of Mass Destruction, remarked, “We’re glad they (the Iranians) are having trouble with their centrifuge machine. We, the US and its allies, are doing everything we can to make sure that we complicate matters for them.” Initially discovered in Iran, the Stuxnet virus also spread to Indonesia, India, Azerbaijan, Pakistan, and the United States. Unlike most forms of malware, Stuxnet targets computers with specific configuration criteria. The virus was set to delete itself by June 24, 2012.
Stuxnet can serve as a potent weapon. It contains code that enables a man-in-the-middle attack, which falsifies industrial process sensor readings. This manipulation causes an infected system to fail to shut down appropriately when abnormal behavior is detected, making it impossible for operators to recognize issues, such as a nuclear core meltdown. The virus specifically targets the coolant rods in nuclear reactors. Interestingly, the reactors at the Fukushima Power Plant in Japan use Siemens controllers. During the earthquake on March 11, 2011, three out of six reactors at Fukushima failed to shut down as expected. This malfunction closely resembles the behavior seen in a Stuxnet infection, which damages system controllers.
3. Cancer
Cancer is a well-known cause of death, and nearly everyone has encountered its impact. It refers to a range of diseases characterized by the uncontrolled growth of cells in the body. Once the cancerous cells begin to spread, they invade and damage surrounding tissues. These tumors can metastasize, traveling through the bloodstream and lymphatic system to other parts of the body. The prevalence of cancer diagnoses and related deaths is increasing. In 1904, only 1 in 24 individuals were diagnosed with cancer, but by 2008, the rate had climbed to 1 in 2 men and 1 in 3 women.
Advances in DNA analysis and medical technology have contributed to these rising statistics. It is estimated that over 50% of the population will be diagnosed with cancer at some point in their life. A recent report from Macmillan Cancer Support revealed that 4 in 10 people in the UK will be diagnosed with cancer. In the United States, cancer is responsible for 1 in 4 deaths. Projections for 2011 estimated 1,596,670 new cancer cases and 571,950 deaths.
In the United States, cancer rates among men have remained steady over the past few years. In contrast, for women, cancer incidence rates have been decreasing by 0.6% annually since 1998. Individuals living in impoverished neighborhoods face cancer rates more than twice as high as those in affluent areas. Lung cancer, once almost nonexistent worldwide in the early 1900s, is now a significant concern. Women who smoke are more than twice as likely to develop lung cancer compared to men. A 2008 report by the World Health Organization predicts that by 2030, there will be around 20 million new cancer diagnoses annually, an increase from 12 million.
2. Near-Earth Objects
A near-Earth object (NEO) is any body within our Solar System whose orbit brings it near Earth. NEOs include thousands of asteroids, comets, solar-orbiting spacecraft, and meteoroids. Since the 1980s, scientists have focused on NEOs due to the potential threat some asteroids or comets may pose. As of 2008, only two NEOs had been visited by spacecraft: 433 Eros and 25143 Itokawa. 433 Eros, the second-largest near-Earth asteroid after 1036 Ganymed, has a maximum diameter exceeding 10 km and has even crossed into Mars' orbit. In 2001, the NEAR Shoemaker probe successfully landed on 433 Eros using maneuvering jets.
Comet C/2010 X1 (Elenin) is a long-period comet discovered by amateur Russian astronomer Leonid Elenin on December 10, 2010. The comet is expected to reach perihelion (its closest approach to the Sun) on September 10, 2011, and will come closest to Earth on October 16, 2011. The comet has a heliocentric orbital period of 600,000 years, and due to its highly elliptical orbit, it will be frequently disturbed by planetary forces as it moves through the inner solar system. According to the JPL Horizons On-Line Ephemeris System, the comet's semi-major axis is roughly 11,700 years, a concerning figure as it coincides with the end of the Pleistocene epoch on Earth 11,700 years ago.
On December 25, 2004, an asteroid named 99942 Apophis was assigned a rating of 4 on the Torino scale, the highest level possible. Just two days later, on December 27, 2004, there was a 2.7% likelihood that Earth would be impacted by Apophis on April 13, 2029. Since then, the risk of a 2029 collision has dropped to zero, but there remains a possibility that during this close encounter, Apophis could pass through a gravitational keyhole, which might set up a future impact on April 13, 2036. Currently, the only known near-Earth object with a Palermo scale value greater than zero is (29075) 1950 DA, which is predicted to either pass extremely close to Earth or collide with it in 2880. As a result, humanity has been preparing for the day when an asteroid impact becomes unavoidable. One of the strategies for deflecting asteroids is the use of a gravity tractor (GT), a spacecraft that alters the trajectory of an object in space by using only its gravitational field to impart the necessary force.
1. Holocene Extinction
The Holocene extinction refers to the ongoing mass extinction of species during the Holocene epoch. This epoch began 11,700 years ago and continues to the present day, marking the expansion of the human race and the beginning of all recorded history. This period has been defined by a significant number of plant and animal extinctions, particularly among mammals, birds, amphibians, reptiles, and arthropods. According to the species-area curve, approximately 140,000 species go extinct every year, many of which are small organisms. However, the Holocene extinction also includes the loss of large mammals, referred to as megafauna.
The causes of the Holocene Extinction have been linked to global warming, pollution, and human influence. There is no general consensus on whether this event is part of Earth's natural evolutionary cycle. A group of scientists has estimated that current extinction rates may be up to 10,000 times higher than the historical norm. Archaeological and paleontological research conducted across 70 different islands in the Pacific Ocean has provided evidence that the expansion of human populations has led to the extinction of thousands of species. Among these species was the moa-nalo, a goose-like bird that once inhabited the larger Hawaiian Islands.
In Madagascar, more than eight species of elephant birds have become extinct, along with the Malagasy aardvark and 17 different lemur species. Several species of giant tortoises have also disappeared from the islands of Seychelles and Mascarene in the Indian Ocean. The Holocene epoch has seen the extinction of numerous large animals, including the auroch (a type of large cattle), the tarpan (a wild horse), the thylacine (a carnivorous marsupial), the quagga (a zebra species), the Steller’s sea cow, the Falkland Islands wolf, the Atlas bear, and the Eastern cougar. Global leaders are fully aware of these changes, and currently, 189 countries are part of The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). This treaty aims to establish national strategies for the preservation of biodiversity.
