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The quest to colonize Mars is well underway, but it’s not as simple as sending settlers to live in igloo-like structures. We’ve already delved into the many challenges astronauts must face during their journey to Mars. However, even more bewildering challenges await once we arrive.
The geology of the Red Planet remains largely a mystery, and what is known reveals dangerous phenomena that could thwart humanity’s dreams of building settlements. Beyond the rugged terrain, Mars offers some of the most remarkable geological puzzles and awe-inspiring discoveries.
10. The Enigmatic Cloud
In 2018, the Mars Express orbiter passed over the Martian equator, sending back images that included a peculiar photograph of a cloud. This white streak stood out sharply against the red planet, stretching a staggering 1,500 kilometers (930 miles).
What’s even more intriguing is that it appeared to be emanating from above a volcano. There was no chance of an eruption—Arsia Mons is an ancient, dormant volcano. In fact, Mars hasn’t experienced any volcanic activity for millions of years.
Nevertheless, there was a possibility that Arsia Mons had been the source of the vapor. Clouds often cover the dormant volcano, but the only clouds similar to the 2018 fog trail are found on Earth.
These are known as orographic clouds, which form on the leeward side of mountains. Air is forced upwards, where it expands, cools, and condenses on dust particles. Interestingly, similar clouds have appeared near the summit of Arsia Mons every three years since 2009. The cloud of 2018 matched this pattern perfectly.
9. The First Wind Recording
The InSight lander arrived on Mars in 2018, with its primary mission being to explore the planet’s interior. After landing, the device had some downtime while adjusting to its new environment. Scientists took advantage of this opportunity to listen to the Martian wind, and for the first time, they succeeded in doing so.
Using its highly sensitive equipment and sensors, the lander captured sounds that were audible to humans as well as infrasound frequencies. NASA recorded both, and the result was quite haunting. One researcher described the sound as a mixture of Earth’s wind, the roar of an ocean, and something else that made it feel distinctly alien.
The gusts of wind originated from the northwest, sweeping across the lander’s solar panels at speeds of 24 kilometers per hour (15 mph) and 16 kilometers per hour (10 mph). These recordings were captured using InSight’s air pressure sensor and seismometer. Once the lander began its primary mission, scientists reversed the wind study to use the sensors to cancel out the wind interference, as it affected the seismometer’s ability to explore beneath the planet’s surface.
8. Fire Opals
In 1911, a Martian meteorite struck Egypt near the village of El Nakhla El Bahariya. Known as Nakhla, this space rock now resides at the Natural History Museum in the UK. In 2015, scientists revisited it and discovered something unprecedented for Mars: the meteorite contained fire opals.
On Earth, these stunning gems are known for their warm, flame-like hues. They only form in the ocean around hydrothermal vents. This variety of opal is significant to scientists as it traps microbes during its formation.
This discovery opened up new possibilities for searching for life on Mars. Earlier surface samples from the Red Planet suggested that opals might form in certain regions, but Nakhla provided the first tangible evidence of these gems.
Under a powerful microscope, the Martian opals revealed they were millions or even billions of years old and strikingly similar to those found on Earth. Unfortunately, the fragments were too small to study for signs of life. Future missions could focus on Mars's opal-rich areas to obtain larger samples.
7. The Enigmatic Blueberries
In 2004, NASA’s Opportunity rover roamed Mars. After several months, it stumbled upon something puzzling—tiny spheres—the nature of which remains a mystery to this day. Analyzing false-color images that made the spheres appear blue, scientists were left to wonder about these strange “blueberries” scattered across the Martian surface.
What geological processes could have formed them, and what does that tell us about the planet’s ancient environment?
Recently, researchers turned their attention to Earth’s landscapes that resembled Mars—specifically Mongolia and Utah. To their excitement, they found similar formations. These tiny spheres on Earth had calcite centers wrapped in iron and were likely shaped by prolonged exposure to flowing water. The “river pebble” appearance suggested that the area where the Martian blueberries were found had once been flooded with water.
Scientists are still uncertain about the chemical composition of the Martian spheres. If they can solve this puzzle, it could uncover the chemistry of the water that formed them and whether the area could have supported life. Essentially, this could help determine if the water could have nurtured any life forms.
6. The Vanishing Methane
In 2003, space news erupted with thrilling reports: NASA announced the detection of methane on Mars. The following year, the European Space Agency (ESA) independently confirmed the finding.
It seemed like a sure thing in 2014 when NASA’s Curiosity rover discovered even more of the gas on the Martian surface. The Martian atmosphere was thought to be rich in methane, sparking excitement among scientists. This organic molecule suggested the potential presence of life on the Red Planet.
But over the years, the methane-rich atmosphere began to vanish. In 2016, the first unsettling discovery was made when the ESA launched its ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter (TGO) to the planet. Equipped with highly sensitive sensors, the TGO was designed to detect even the smallest traces of methane.
Given that Mars had previously released large quantities of methane, nobody expected TGO to report its absence. Yet, two years later, despite still orbiting Mars, the orbiter never detected any. While TGO is fully operational, much of its new data remains to be analyzed. It could still uncover the mystery behind the missing—or perhaps concealed—methane.
5. The Medusae Fossae Formation
In 2018, the Opportunity rover was forced into hibernation due to a catastrophic dust storm that enveloped Mars. This event brought attention to an enduring mystery: the sheer amount of dust on the Red Planet.
On Earth, dust is a product of natural activities like rivers, volcanic eruptions, and glaciers on the move. None of these processes occur on Mars, yet every year, approximately 3 trillion kilograms (6.6 trillion pounds) of dust appears on the Red Planet.
In 2018, scientists pinpointed the source of the never-ending dust. Most of it originated from the Medusae Fossae Formation. When this formation was first identified in the 1960s, its true nature remained a mystery.
This vast geological feature, stretching over 1,000 kilometers (620 miles), was initially thought to be volcanic in origin, making it the largest volcanic deposit in the entire solar system. Remarkably, it was once about half the size of the United States.
Around 80 percent of its porous structure had already eroded, producing an astounding quantity of dust. This was confirmed when dust found across Mars showed a chemical signature identical to the Medusae Fossae's distinct sulfur-to-chlorine ratio.
4. The Earthlike Water Cycle
In 2018, researchers explored a potential landing site for a 2020 mission. This location, Hypanis Valles, was once an ancient river system. The findings were remarkable: Mars likely once had a hydrological cycle very similar to Earth’s—complete with a vast ocean.
The investigation uncovered the largest river delta ever found on the Red Planet. The deposits found at the delta’s mouth could only have formed if flowing water had emptied into a sea. A sea large enough to cover a third of Mars’ northern hemisphere.
The discovery of such massive bodies of water had always been one of the greatest enigmas in the study of Mars' geology. An ocean suggests that the barren world once had a thriving water cycle, complete with lakes, rivers, seas, and expansive oceans.
Scientists hypothesize that this system was global and functioned similarly to Earth’s water cycle until around 3.7 billion years ago. A sudden, catastrophic change disrupted the cycle, leading to its eventual collapse. Today, Mars is a dry, desolate world without liquid water.
3. Martian Terraforming Is Out
If humans hope to walk and breathe on Mars, the planet must be terraformed. This involves modifying the frigid temperatures and sparse atmosphere to make it more hospitable to humans. The initial step would be to warm Mars up by introducing carbon dioxide.
A study in 2018 dashed that dream. There simply isn’t enough carbon dioxide. The research thoroughly examined the planet’s carbon dioxide stores locked in rock and ice, concluding that even if all of it were released, it still wouldn’t be sufficient. The total amount would only increase the atmosphere's thickness by three times—barely one-fiftieth of what’s needed for terraforming.
Another obstacle is our present technology. Even if there were enough CO2 trapped within Mars’ surface, we currently lack the technological capability to make the massive alterations required to transform the planet.
There's yet another challenge: Mars doesn’t possess a magnetic field strong enough to retain an atmosphere. Any carbon dioxide that is released would eventually escape into space.
2. Babies On Mars
There’s a growing fascination among scientists regarding Mars colonies. The goal is to establish a self-sustaining population, making humanity a multi-planetary species. For this to succeed, future generations must be born and raised on Mars. However, no one is certain if this is even feasible. The two main challenges are radiation and gravity.
Astronauts are already exposed to space radiation, and their levels of exposure are closely monitored. The potential effects on a developing fetus could be catastrophic, leading to severe abnormalities.
Additionally, gravity on Mars is only 38 percent of Earth’s. Scientists are uncertain about how this reduced gravity might impact an unborn child or a growing young one. Animal testing has yet to produce consistent results.
Mammalian reproduction in space is so intricate that the best theories are rendered meaningless. The true effects can only be understood once humans have babies on Mars or test embryos in space. However, this would face such strong ethical opposition that progress in this area is virtually nonexistent.
1. Curiosity’s Legacy
After years of investigating the Martian landscape, NASA’s Curiosity rover made a groundbreaking discovery in 2018, potentially solving the mystery of methane on Mars. First, the samples it collected confirmed the presence of biological compounds on the Red Planet. Second, its findings provided insights into where the methane had disappeared. Both achievements were celebrated as monumental in the field of astrobiology.
The geological samples were taken from mudstone deposits in the Gale Crater, which are about 300 million years old. These samples revealed organic chemistry strikingly similar to Earth’s mudstone, but originating from more complex, larger compounds.
Curiosity also observed a recurring pattern: methane levels would rise and fall. The data revealed an exciting trend: the fluctuations were in sync with the Martian seasons. In the northern hemisphere, methane peaked in the summer and disappeared during the winter.
While the underlying processes remain unclear, one theory aligns with this seasonal rhythm. It suggests that crystalline water structures known as clathrates could be driving the methane cycle by trapping the gas in ice during certain seasons, only to release it as they thaw.
