Buzz
If you’ve watched The Big Bang Theory and caught the jokes about Bert the geologist, you might assume that geology is just about dull folks gazing at boring rocks. That assumption is far from the truth.
Geology is essentially the Earth’s story, written in rocks and chemicals. It’s a language that still amazes even the experts with its vastness and complexity. New findings can, in an instant, overthrow previously accepted ideas, replacing them with the bizarre, the unknown, and the astonishing changes our planet has gone through.
From the center of our planet to far-off worlds in space, there are mysteries and surprises waiting to be uncovered.
10. The Vityaz Earthquakes
The Pacific Ocean harbors strange tremors, known as the Vityaz earthquakes, whose origins remain a mystery. The only certainty scientists have is that these massive quakes originate deep beneath the Earth’s surface, somewhere between Fiji and Australia in the mantle.
However, a single discovery might rewrite everything we know about tectonic plates. In a phenomenon called subduction, continental plates collide, with one sliding beneath the other, breaking apart as it sinks toward the Earth’s core. In 2017, researchers uncovered signs of plates going astray. Instead of plunging into their doom, some plates moved horizontally into a waterlogged area of the mantle.
This “transition zone” lies 440–660 kilometers (270–410 mi) below the surface. By using earthquake vibrations, geologists tracked what they believe are immense slabs that have survived for millions of years. They shift in the same way as surface plates, and their movements can trigger significant earthquakes.
Notably, a large slab was discovered beneath the sites of the Vityaz earthquakes. The cause of tectonic activity in the transition zone is that subduction in the Pacific occurs too rapidly. It’s so congested that some plates get forced sideways into the mantle.
9. The Spokane Flood
In 1909, a teacher became so intrigued by the mystery behind the formation of the Channeled Scablands that he decided to pursue a career in geology. This area, located in Washington State, features a dry waterfall that is 10 times the size of Niagara Falls. Harley Bretz observed towering gravel piles, massive holes large enough to swallow neighborhoods, boulders in odd locations, canyons not created by rivers, and waterfalls with no apparent water sources.
His theory of an Ice Age mega-flood made him an outcast among fellow scientists. They couldn't believe that a flood could reshape the landscape in mere days, especially when the prevailing belief was that geological changes happened over long periods of time. They rejected Bretz’s idea of a “Spokane Flood,” opting instead for theories that involved processes spanning millions of years.
Sadly, Bretz couldn’t identify the source of the flood. In the 1940s, another geologist uncovered the answer. The Clark Fork River Valley was blocked during the last Ice Age, and when the dam burst, it unleashed an unimaginable volume of water into Washington. Later studies revealed that this process repeated nearly 80 times over thousands of years, confirming both Bretz’s theory and disproving his critics' slower timeline of the Scablands’ formation.
8. An Iron Jet Stream
In 2013, the European Space Agency launched satellites to collect new data on the Earth’s magnetic field. By 2016, the information transmitted back was so detailed it was like seeing an X-ray of the planet.
In a stunning discovery, scientists detected a band of liquid iron deep inside the Earth's magnetic core. This metal behaves like a jet stream in the sky, and the clear view of this strange current helped researchers understand its origins.
The core is made up of several layers, and this iron jet stream flows along the boundary between two of these layers. It’s believed that the fluid came from both sides, colliding and forcing the material into a horizontal motion.
The molten stream is far from stationary. It flows about 40 kilometers (25 mi) each year, currently heading west. It moves three times faster than the outer layer of the core, which is also liquid iron, and thousands of times faster than tectonic plates. The satellite data revealed that this flow is the main driver behind shifts in Earth’s magnetic field.
7. Pools Of Carbon Dioxide
Researchers have named them Kallisti Limnes—delicate, ethereal discs of fluid found beneath the ocean’s surface. First discovered in 2015 at the Greek volcano of Santorini, these underwater pools gain their color from opal particles. But they are composed of something much more potent: carbon dioxide. These high-concentration pools may offer a way to predict future volcanic activity.
Santorini earned its place in history when it destroyed the Minoan civilization after a catastrophic eruption in 1600 BC. The rarity of these pools is equally remarkable. To form such a pool underwater, a substance denser than seawater is required. While other underwater pools are made of brine, Kallisti Limnes are unique in being held down by carbon dioxide.
This discovery reshapes how scientists thought gas behaved in the ocean. It was once believed that gas would quickly dissipate once released into the water by geological events. However, inside Santorini’s caldera, it formed pools 1–5 meters (3–16 ft) in diameter that remain distinct from the surrounding sea, even at depths of 250 meters (820 ft).
6. Largest Exposed Fault
The Ring of Fire is home to some of the most devastating tsunamis in modern history. But if that wasn’t terrifying enough, it also houses the world’s largest visible fault. The deepest point in the ocean, outside of a trench, is the Weber Deep. Located near Indonesia, it plunges into a chasm 7.2 kilometers (4.5 mi) deep.
To solve the puzzle of its formation, underwater mapping gave scientists the first clue. The seafloor was scarred with numerous straight, parallel lines. Simulations matched these findings, suggesting that a Belgium-sized fracture created the Weber Deep. Even more astonishing, the simulations revealed the existence of an open fault measuring 60,000 square kilometers (23,166 mi).
In 2016, researchers made an exciting visit to a fault they named the Banda Detachment. Prior to this, it had existed only in theory. To their surprise, parts of the Banda Detachment were visible above the waves. While this fault has the potential to trigger destructive earthquakes if it shifts, it could also assist geologists in making more precise predictions about tectonic movements in the Ring of Fire.
5. Don Juan Pond
This pond, with its poetic name, has baffled scientists since its discovery in Antarctica in 1961. Despite temperatures as low as -50 degrees Celsius (-58 °F), the pond refuses to freeze. It is only a few inches deep, with syrupy, highly saline water that stays liquid thanks to its extreme salt content. But that’s where the consensus ends, and mystery begins.
Situated in an area that bears similarities to Mars, the pond’s enigma could offer insights into the Martian environment. The key to unlocking its secret lies in identifying the unique source of the pure salt. Initially, it was believed the pond had a deep underground source. However, a 2013 study challenged this assumption by photographing the water’s flow at different times. This study proposed that snowmelt deposited the salt from the surrounding soil into the pond.
A 2017 study revisited the underground source theory using computer simulations, suggesting that Don Juan’s chemical composition would closely match that of the estimated groundwater mix. However, both theories lack definitive proof since testing is limited due to the protected status of the area.
If the source is indeed underground, it would not contribute to the Mars project, as the Red Planet is far too cold to support anything similar.
4. New Zealand’s Continent
A group of geologists proposes the addition of a new continent to the world map, one they’ve dubbed Zealandia. Roughly half the size of Europe, it is mostly submerged, but its dry peaks include New Zealand and New Caledonia.
The idea of a lost landmass is not new. For years, researchers noticed a striking similarity between a feature in the Pacific Ocean and something familiar. It has continental shelves, varying altitudes, and rock samples that don’t align with the surrounding seafloor.
Instead of producing basaltic rocks, which are relatively young geologically, Zealandia’s crust contained the ancient materials typically found in continents—limestone, sandstone, and granite. Most revealing is a stretch of oceanic crust between Zealandia and Australia, indicating that these were once separate continents.
All the evidence points toward Earth hosting another significant landmass. Zealandia sunk millions of years ago after its crust thinned when it separated from the supercontinent Gondwana. Had it not thinned, Zealandia would have remained afloat, just like the other continents.
3. Earth Was Once Vaporized
The widely accepted theory of the Moon’s origin may now be under scrutiny. According to this theory, a protoplanet named Theia collided with Earth, destroying itself, and the debris from this collision formed the Moon.
A comparison of rocks from both Earth and the Moon painted a much more intriguing picture. Chemically, the samples were nearly identical, which made the Theia theory seem improbable. Earlier research suggested that up to 80 percent of the Moon’s composition could have come from Theia. However, the odds of Earth and this protoplanet sharing the same chemical makeup were close to zero. It turns out that the Moon's material actually originated from Earth's mantle (the outermost layer of the core).
For this to happen, a colossal impact would have been necessary to vaporize both Theia and a substantial portion of Earth, forming a superfluid disk roughly 500 times the size of the Earth as we know it. While much of the dense gas fell back to Earth, the Moon was born from the remnants.
Moon rocks contain slightly more potassium-41, which provides additional insight into the Moon’s formation. This isotope suggests that the Moon began as a cloud that gradually condensed into its present form under extreme pressure.
2. The Entiat Aftershocks
Geologically speaking, Central Washington State is quite stable. However, the town of Entiat has been rocked by hundreds of quakes over the past century. The most notable event occurred in 1872, when a massive earthquake, with a magnitude of around 6.5–7, caused significant tremors in the region.
In 2015, researchers investigating the ongoing seismic activity in Entiat made an intriguing discovery. While the exact location of the 1872 earthquake had previously been unknown, they located its fault scarp in Entiat. Suddenly, the persistent tremors seemed much more likely to be aftershocks, despite taking place 145 years later.
Long-lasting aftershocks, though not completely understood, are not entirely rare. There are only about 10–20 documented cases, though not all are confirmed. The Entiat quakes showed all the typical characteristics of aftershocks.
One resident, living 20 kilometers (12 miles) from the fault scarp, counted 64 aftershocks in the seven hours following the 1872 earthquake. This number matched the researchers' estimates. Historical records from the area after 1900 and more detailed earthquake data since 1976 also fit the pattern of aftershocks.
The Entiat quakes continue to this day, making them among the longest-lasting aftershocks in history.
1. The Lost Volcano
In 1465, the residents of Naples believed they were witnessing an eclipse. What seemed like a temporary darkness was only the beginning. In Germany, torrential rains caused graves to be unearthed, while in Poland, boats traveled down flooded streets. Whole villages were swept away by the deluge. Within four years, Europe was plunged into a mini Ice Age.
This unusual weather was caused by a massive volcanic eruption. The eruption was so tremendous that its ash cloud spread across the globe, blocking the Sun's warmth. Even though this volcano was more powerful than the Tambora eruption of 1815—equivalent to over two million atomic bombs—geologists have been unable to identify it.
For some time, the Kuwae volcano in the South Pacific was suspected of being the culprit. However, the eruption was much smaller than Tambora’s. In 2012, ice core samples from Antarctica revealed that the ash from Kuwae actually predated the mega-eruption that caused Europe’s freeze.
The 15th-century catastrophe was also discovered in the ice layers. Surprisingly, it was caused by two eruptions. The ash from the first eruption was traced back to 1458, a few years before the infamous Naples “eclipse.” Though these volcanoes likely destroyed themselves and sank into the ocean, they originated somewhere in the tropics. The atmospheric conditions in the tropical regions allowed the ash to linger and remain airborne for years.
