Buzz
When people mention the phrase “ancient Peru,” they often envision Machu Picchu and the Nazca Lines. However, the nation is built on a long history of diverse cultures that have shaped its identity.
While the remnants they left behind may not rival the scale of lost cities, these artifacts are no less extraordinary and enigmatic. Newly uncovered mummies are challenging past assumptions and shedding light on unknown civilizations. Evidence of settlements reveals the harsh realities of their era, from invasions and tyrannical rulers to even the practice of blood sacrifices among what were otherwise advanced societies.
10. The Inca Tree
This discovery caught everyone by surprise, especially because the tree was not only large but also widespread. Researchers had noticed the towering specimens for a while—some reached heights of up to 30 meters (100 ft)—but it wasn't until 2017 that they realized they had uncovered an entirely new species of rubber tree.
This new species is related to plants like poinsettias and other latex-producing species from the spurge family. However, this particular tree is exceptional—so unique that scientists had to create a whole new genus for it. It’s akin to discovering oak or cabbage for the first time.
Named Incadendron esseri (“Esser’s tree of the Inca”), this tree is a familiar sight along the Trocha Union, an ancient Inca road in Peru. The canopy tree can be seen stretching across the landscape from southern Peru all the way to Ecuador.
While scientists are still uncertain as to why it thrives in such a challenging environment, it’s clear that the 0.6-meter-thick (2 ft) Incadendron is vulnerable to the effects of rising global temperatures and deforestation.
9. Elite Skulls
Long before the Incas settled in Peru, the Collagua people began shaping their skulls into elongated forms. This practice started around AD 1300 and continued for centuries.
However, skull modification wasn’t a widespread custom. In an effort to understand why people chose to alter their children’s skulls, a recent study examined 211 skulls from two Collagua cemeteries. The findings revealed that these elongated skulls were mostly found in elite graves. Surprisingly, skull binding wasn’t a sudden practice; it evolved over many generations.
The process began in infancy, with boards and cloth used to gradually shape the skull into a more pointed form. Researchers speculate that these individuals, who looked different from the general population, may have formed a united leadership that helped them survive the Inca invasion.
When the Incas arrived in 1450, instead of engaging in conflict, the Collagua elite might have chosen to peacefully join the powerful Inca Empire. However, the fate of the Collagua remains a mystery. Like their neighbors, the Cavanas, they eventually vanished.
8. The Paracas Geoglyphs
In 2014, archaeologists revealed the discovery of ancient geoglyphs predating the renowned Nazca Lines. These markings, created by the Paracas culture around 300 BC, are three centuries older than the earliest known Nazca designs. They were found in the Chinca Valley, part of a complex artificial landscape.
The 71 rocky lines were accompanied by massive mounds, pyramids, 353 stone cairns, and rocks arranged in circles and rectangles. Several of these geoglyphs and mounds were positioned to align with the sunset of the June solstice.
This wasn’t merely seasonal worship; it likely served as a wayfinding system, guiding people to Paracas-style trade fairs at specific times of the year. The sites themselves probably hosted festivities, kept track of time, and served multiple purposes beyond a singular ritualistic use.
7. The Atacama Mummies
Discovering 150 mummies from an unknown culture is a rare event, but between 2012 and 2014, simple graves were uncovered in the Atacama Desert that revealed just that.
These individuals were naturally preserved, having been placed directly in the sand and wrapped only in sheaths made from cotton, reeds, or fishing nets. They were neither Inca nor Tiwanaku, as these bodies predate both cultures by 500 years, dating back to the 4th–7th centuries AD.
Fortunately, the items buried with them provided valuable insights. Most of the grave goods were well-crafted and adorned. Researchers gained a glimpse into how this civilization made jewelry, pottery, and weapons. They also discovered what these people wore, how they fished, and even that they combed their hair.
The discovery of bows was an exceptionally rare find in Peru. Additionally, llama bones found in another grave could potentially rewrite the history books on when the animal first arrived in the region.
In a remarkable twist, just next to the cemetery, another burial site was uncovered containing Tiwanaku graves. This later civilization was not thought to have reached the Tambo River delta, where the mummies were found.
6. The First Female Governor
In the Chicama Valley, an ancient adobe pyramid known as Cao Viejo houses a mummy that reshaped a significant aspect of pre-Hispanic Peru. Until 2006, it was believed that women held no power positions. However, the discovery of the so-called Lady of Cao challenged this belief.
She was part of the Moche culture, which thrived from AD 100 to AD 800. This woman ruled over northern Peru 1,700 years ago. Among the items found in her tomb were a crown, large war clubs, spear throwers, and copper and gold artifacts. Her mummy’s face, feet, and legs were adorned with tattoos of spiders and serpents, both believed to be magical symbols.
As the first female political, religious, and cultural ruler of Peru, researchers were eager to learn more about the Lady of Cao. While they couldn’t meet her directly, they were able to reconstruct her face using skull analysis, 3-D printing, and 10 months of meticulous work to bring the details together.
The result was the image of a strong, capable woman in her twenties. A medical examination revealed that her death was likely caused by complications from pregnancy or childbirth.
5. The Rapid Inca Invasion
Ayawiri, a hilltop town in the central Andes, was once inhabited by around 1,000 people from the native Colla civilization. During a recent excavation of Ayawiri, archaeologists discovered an unusual sight: too many valuable items scattered around, suggesting that the inhabitants had fled in such haste that they didn’t have time to pack.
The presence of valuable metal tools, jewelry, stone implements, and practical pottery is extremely rare for an abandoned settlement. It is believed that Inca warriors launched a swift attack on the hill, forcing the Colla people to abandon everything and flee.
Evidence points to the event occurring around AD 1450, and it appears that not everyone was unaware of the impending assault. When researchers dug through the homes of wealthier families, they found that many of these homes were almost completely devoid of possessions. These families had likely left earlier, knowing of the invasion, but for reasons unknown, they did not warn the rest of the town. The whereabouts of the Colla people after they fled the hill remains a mystery.
4. Geoglyphs Created by Three Civilizations
In early 2018, National Geographic revealed an exciting discovery in Peru: approximately 50 new “Nazca” designs. However, these designs were different from the well-known geometric and animal shapes. Smaller in size—about the area of a football field—these figures were mostly human-shaped, and unlike the famous Nazca Lines that spread across flat terrain, these new images appeared to climb hills.
The previously unknown artwork was first spotted by drones in 2017, during a project aimed at preserving existing archaeological sites. The importance of these new designs lies not only in their visual differences but also in the fact that they were created by three distinct civilizations. This discovery suggests that the Nazca (AD 200–700) did not originate this tradition.
Instead, the Nazca built upon the work of the Paracas and the Topara cultures (500 BC–AD 200), who had started and maintained the tradition long before the Nazca came into the picture. This raises a compelling question: Why did this labor-intensive tradition persist across three different cultures?
There are various theories about their purpose, such as representing constellations, serving as guides for pilgrims, or having ritual significance. However, the true reason why the ancient Peruvians created these enormous figures in their landscape remains a mystery.
3. Living Royal Incas
The Inca Empire came to a tragic end in 1533 with the murder of its last emperor, Atahualpa, at the hands of the Spanish. Atahualpa ruled over the largest empire of its era, a civilization that produced remarkable engineering feats, including Machu Picchu and an extensive 40,200-kilometer (25,000 mi) network of roads stretching from Colombia to Argentina.
Following the emperor's death, the mighty empire was obliterated. In 2009, Dutch historian Ronald Elward moved to Peru and spent years searching for any royal descendants. He managed to trace 25 noble family names directly connected to Atahualpa.
Surprisingly, most of the living descendants were found in lower social classes. This may be due to the fact that indigenous surnames are more commonly preserved in rural regions, while they are often looked down upon in urban areas.
One of the descendants Elward traced was 40-year-old Roberta Huamanrimanchi Tupahuacayllo. By day, she takes care of other people's children, but through her mother's lineage, Roberta carries the blood of the royal Inca family. Her father, meanwhile, continues the ancient Inca tradition of collecting family skulls.
Elward’s work was largely backed by parish records and personal interviews, forming the foundation for Peruvian geneticist Ricardo Fujita's research. Fujita tested individuals claiming descent from Atahualpa’s father, Huayna Capac, and discovered DNA links between about 35 people and indigenous populations near Lake Titicaca. This finding lends support to the legend that the Inca originated in that region.
2. Chimu Child Sacrifices
While the adults at Pacopampa participated in non-fatal ceremonies, several children from the Chimu culture didn’t survive theirs. Their deaths were not accidental. In 2017, construction workers in Huanchaco uncovered ancient human remains while preparing to lay pipes. Upon recognizing the bones were old, they alerted archaeologists.
In total, 77 burials were uncovered, representing a mix of pre-Inca civilizations including the Chimu, Salinar, and Viru. Among the remains, at least 12 were children who had died 1,500 years ago. Examination of the children’s chest bones revealed cut marks, suggesting that their ribs had been sawed open in a ritualistic effort to remove their hearts.
In addition to the dozen children, a newborn was also found among the remains, indicating a sacrificial ritual. These killings were likely carried out by the Chimu culture (AD 900–1470) in an attempt to appease the rain gods, as the region was notoriously dry.
In stark contrast to these sacrifices, the Chimu people were known for their remarkable craftsmanship and engineering skills. Their capital, Chan Chan, is recognized by UNESCO as a true “masterpiece of town planning.”
1. Prehistoric Hazing
At the Pacopampa ceremonial site, skeletons bearing severe injuries were discovered in 2017. While the Andes' history of conflict and sacrifice might make one think they were war victims, a closer inspection revealed inconsistencies that made this theory unlikely.
Pacopampa was an unfortified settlement, suggesting its people had no need to fear attack. Their lives appeared to be calm in terms of warfare. The injuries discovered showed signs of healing, meaning none of the blows were fatal. Both men and women experienced similar injuries, with no defensive wounds indicating they simply accepted the beatings. The fractures occurred in the same areas—skull, face, limbs, and dislocated elbows.
The most telling clue was the fact that none of the skeletons were found in elite graves. This pointed to a disturbing practice. Between the 13th and 6th centuries BC, the ruling class employed violent rituals to assert control over the common people. Earlier excavations had already revealed that inequality existed at Pacopampa, along with a strong tradition of ceremonial rites.
