Buzz
This list follows a chronological sequence and is not all-encompassing or absolute; it focuses on events with substantial historical evidence and research, rather than solely magnitude or death toll. Where possible, I have referred to the Moment Magnitude Scale (MMS) and included seismic maps from Wikipedia. In cases where such maps weren't available, a general regional map was used. Additionally, I’ve consulted various geological resources to update my knowledge, as some information had been outdated by a decade.
Understanding historical earthquakes is crucial for assessing the probability of future natural disasters in the same regions and their potential timelines. Unfortunately, human memory often fails to retain the impacts of such catastrophic events, or they are easily pushed aside. This phenomenon is evident in this and subsequent lists, where natural disasters, still vivid in memory, have occurred repeatedly in the same areas. Despite years of research, it remains baffling that we continue rebuilding cities in seismically active zones after such destructive events.
10. Mount Tai Earthquake 1831 BC
Although little is known about this earthquake, it is historically significant as the first documented earthquake and natural disaster. It is mentioned in the Bamboo Annals, an ancient Chinese chronicle.
The Bamboo Annals make no mention of any fatalities, and it is said to have occurred at Mount Tai during the 7th year of King Fa's reign in the Xia dynasty, in what is now Shandong province in China.
Mount Tai is one of the Five Great Mountains in Chinese culture and symbolizes themes of sunrise, birth, and renewal.
Geologically, Mount Tai is a tilted fault-block mountain, with its height increasing from north to south. It is the oldest known example of a paleo-metamorphic formation from the Cambrian Period in eastern China, known as the Taishan Complex.
Shandong, a region in modern-day northeastern China, is highly seismically active. It is located near the epicenter of the 1976 Tangshan Earthquake, which followed a moderate earthquake in Miaodao in 1975. The area often experiences earthquakes with magnitudes of 6 or higher.
9. Sparta Earthquake 464 BC
This earthquake had profound consequences, devastating much of the city-state of Sparta. It is estimated that the quake and its aftershocks may have claimed up to 20,000 lives and sparked a revolt by the Helots. This uprising caused the breakdown of a treaty between Sparta and Athens, which eventually led to the outbreak of the First Peloponnesian War.
The accounts preserved by Strabo, Pausanias, Plutarch, and Thucydides vary in reliability, making it challenging to pinpoint the exact epicenter and magnitude of the quake.
The earthquake fueled growing distrust between Sparta and Athens. Thucydides, the ancient Greek historian of the Peloponnesian War, wrote that several Greek city-states sent troops to help suppress the Helot rebellion in Sparta. Athens sent around 4,000 hoplites led by Cimon, but the contingent was sent back, while other city-state forces were allowed to remain. Thucydides noted that the Spartans feared the Athenians might switch allegiances and aid the Helots. Insulted, Athens broke its alliance with Sparta. Once the rebellion was quelled, some surviving rebels fled to Athens, where they were resettled at Naupactus on the strategically important Corinthian Gulf. The Sparta-Athens alliance was never restored, as tensions continued to rise, culminating in the outbreak of war in 460 BC. The earthquake and subsequent Helot revolt led the Spartans to reform their society, adopting a far more austere way of life after the revolt was suppressed.
The Spartan region of Greece has experienced several recent earthquakes, including the 2008 Peloponnese earthquake, which occurred less than 50km from the site of the 464 BC disaster. Geologically, Greece lies at the intersection of the Eurasian, African, and Arabian plates, which have formed smaller micro-plates beneath the country. It is believed that the Sparta earthquake was caused by a strike-slip fault, with east- and northeast-trending zones of deformation, moving at a rate of about 30mm per year.
As an addendum to this event, during the later Peloponnesian Wars, the Greek historian Thucydides described a tsunami that occurred in 426 BC. He was the first to link the cause of a tsunami to an earthquake in written records. Although the epicenter of this quake remains unknown, evidence suggests that the fault movement in the Euboean Gulf, rather than submarine landslides, was responsible. Thucydides' insight into the tsunami's origin, based on his research, shows remarkable foresight, considering he was not directly involved in the actual earthquake.
8. Rhodes Earthquake 226 BC
This earthquake is historically significant for the destruction of the Colossus of Rhodes and the city of Kameiros on the island of Rhodes.
Rhodes has played a crucial role as a cultural and commercial hub for many millennia, situated close to key trade routes connecting Asia Minor, the Middle East, and Africa. As a prominent Aegean port city during the time of the earthquake, it shared this distinction with another well-known earthquake victim, Alexandria in Egypt.
The Colossus of Rhodes was built as an offering to the Greek Gods, expressing gratitude for their help in defending Rhodes against a Macedonian siege. As the city grew in wealth and prominence, it became one of the richest trading hubs in the Mediterranean, and the Colossus was a symbol of its prosperity and hubris.
Contrary to its intended purpose of safeguarding the city, the Colossus likely stood for less than 30 years after its completion. After the earthquake, the statue was left in ruins in the harbor of Rhodes for approximately eight centuries before being sold by Arab invaders to a Jewish merchant in Edessa.
Given Rhodes' economic and cultural significance, it may have been the first city to receive aid from multiple parties. Several other city-states came to its aid, and even Ptolemy III of Egypt offered to fund the rebuilding of the Colossus (though it was later decided, based on an oracle, that it would not be reconstructed).
As previously mentioned, Rhodes lies on the boundary between the Aegean Sea and the African plates, part of the complex tectonic activity in the Mediterranean. This region experiences a mix of thrusting, extension, and strike-slip faulting, and the island itself is undergoing a counter-clockwise rotation due to these tectonic stresses. In addition, Rhodes has been tilted northwestward during the Pleistocene era due to these forces.
7. Lydia Earthquake AD 17
This earthquake was one of the most catastrophic events of Roman times, essentially halting trade to Asia Minor (modern-day Anatolia).
The event was recorded by Roman historians Tacitus and Pliny the Elder, as well as Greek historians Strabo and Eusebius. Pliny described it as 'the greatest earthquake in human memory.'
At least 12 cities were destroyed by the quake, with the epicenter likely located near Ephesus, Sardis, or Magnesia. Cities like Sardis, Magnesia, Temnos, Philadelphia, Aegae, Apollonis, Mostene, Hyrkanis, Hierapolis, Myrina, Cyme, Tmolus, Pergamon, Ephesus, and Kibyra were severely affected, though Tacitus does not mention the destruction of Pergamon, Ephesus, or Kibyra. The reports of Ephesus' destruction might actually be referring to another earthquake that hit the region in 23 AD.
In addition to the widespread destruction and loss of life, the 17 AD earthquake struck during the night and was so economically devastating that Roman Emperor Tiberius sent an aid package of at least 10 million sesterces to Sardis alone to help mitigate the quake's effects. Rome also decreed that all cities impacted by the disaster would be exempt from taxes for five years to aid in recovery. However, Sardis never fully regained its former status, and as the former capital of the Lydian Empire, the earthquake likely dealt the final blow to the remnants of that empire.
On the flip side, the aid packages led to one of the earliest recorded instances of scams and frauds, with Roman historians documenting how ships were sailed out to sea, repainted, and renamed. Original ship owners would then request aid to replace their supposedly lost vessels.
Seismically, the region is affected by the Dead Sea Transform system, the Northern Anatolian Fault, the East Anatolian Fault, the Red Sea Rift, and the tectonic interactions between the Arabian, African, and Eurasian plates.
6. Antioch Earthquake 115 AD
This might become a recurring theme, as this region of Anatolia has been struck by numerous violent earthquakes over the centuries and has served as a cradle of human civilization for thousands of years.
Antioch is located to the southeast of present-day Turkey, sitting directly on a plate transform boundary at the triple junction between the northern end of the Dead Sea Transform, the primarily transform boundary between the African and Arabian Plates, and the southwestern end of the East Anatolian Fault. Positioned in the Anatakya Basin, part of the larger Amik Basin, filled with alluvial sediments from the Pliocene to the present, Antioch is especially vulnerable to ground movement and liquefaction.
As these lists unfold, Antioch will reappear frequently, as it has been the site of some of the most catastrophic earthquakes and tragic losses of life in history.
The earthquake of 115 AD struck on December 13th, with an estimated magnitude of 7.5 on the Moment Magnitude Scale (MMS). While significant, it did not reach the extreme levels of a megathrust earthquake, but its location on an alluvial plain amplified the shaking, resulting in devastating effects.
This earthquake is particularly well-documented, as both Roman Emperor Trajan and his successor Hadrian were present during the event and its aftermath. Their perspectives were recorded by their scribes, providing us with detailed accounts of the disaster.
The most detailed account comes from the historian Cassius Dio in his *Roman History*, who recounts that Antioch was particularly crowded at the time of the earthquake due to the Emperor overwintering in the city. As a result, many traders, civilians, and soldiers had gathered to accompany the emperor. Cassius Dio vividly describes the destruction, including the terrifying roar before the quake, violent ground waves that uprooted trees and sent them flying, the deaths of soldiers and civilians from falling debris, the desperate attempts to rescue people trapped in collapsed buildings, and the horrifying aftershocks that compounded the devastation, with survivors eventually dying of starvation.
Beyond Antioch, the earthquake also destroyed the city of Apamea, and Beirut suffered substantial damage. As if the land-based devastation wasn’t enough, the quake also triggered a tsunami that struck the Lebanese coastline, likely devastating the harbor at Caesarea Maritima. In total, the death toll from this catastrophic event reached an estimated 260,000 people, either directly from the earthquake or from its aftermath.
5. Crete Earthquake 365 AD
On the morning of July 21st, 365 AD, an undersea earthquake hit off the coast of Crete, with an estimated magnitude of at least 8 on the Moment Magnitude scale (MMS). This massive quake was followed by a series of tsunamis that devastated much of the Eastern Mediterranean coastline, wreaking havoc particularly on central and southern Greece, northern Libya, Egypt, Cyprus, and Sicily. In Crete itself, nearly all towns and settlements were wiped out. The tsunami generated by the quake had far-reaching effects, reaching as far as Libya, the Nile Delta, and Alexandria, with reports even claiming that ships were thrown as much as 3 km inland.
This earthquake appears to have been the largest in a series of tremors that struck the region, with growing evidence in recent years suggesting that a cluster of quakes affected the area between the 4th and 6th centuries AD.
The immense force of the quake caused the entire island of Crete to rise by 9 meters, potentially triggering the reactivation of several surrounding plate boundaries and leading to subsequent quakes in the region. This event was likely more powerful than any modern earthquake, supporting the theory of accumulated pressure at greater depths within the surrounding crust. The source of the quake is believed to be the Hellenic Trench, and recent studies indicate that such a powerful quake occurs roughly every 5,000 years.
This earthquake holds particular significance as it occurred at a time just before the fall of the Roman Empire and the rise of Christianity as the dominant faith in the Western world. As a result, many contemporary accounts of the quake are clouded by religious interpretations, with natural disasters often described as divine retribution or warnings related to political, material, or religious events. As paganism began to fade, hostility towards Christianity grew, leading to distorted accounts that reflected the biases of either religious camp, leaving behind only partial records in many Christian-influenced regions.
The philosopher Libanius and the church historian Sozomenus appear to merge the great earthquake of 365 AD with other smaller tremors, framing it as a divine reaction to the death of Emperor Julian, who had sought to revive paganism two years earlier. Depending on their perspective, they either viewed it as an expression of divine sorrow or wrath.
Fortunately, we are not limited to these biased viewpoints. Numerous other sources provide valuable references to the earthquake, including Kourion on Cyprus, which was struck by five strong quakes over an eighty-year span, ultimately leading to its complete destruction in the 365 AD earthquake.
This earthquake is particularly notable for being the first documented and precise account of how a tsunami behaves. It marks the earliest written description of the three phases involved in tsunami formation: the earthquake itself, the sudden retreat of the sea, and the colossal wave that surged inland. This account was provided by the Roman historian Ammianus Marcellinus, who even recorded the date and time of the event. Interestingly, he appears to have been unaffected by the religious tensions between Pagans and Christians at the time.
In remembrance of the disaster, the city of Alexandria held an annual event known as the 'day of horror,' a tradition that lasted until the 6th century AD.
4. Antioch Earthquake 526 AD
A mere four centuries after the previous catastrophic quake, Antioch was struck once more by a devastating earthquake. The earlier quake in 115 AD claimed around 260,000 lives, and this event resulted in at least 250,000 more deaths. This serves as a stark reminder of the dangers of hubris — half a million lives lost in just over four centuries, at the same location, and with the same construction techniques.
The earthquake struck sometime between May 20th and 29th in 526 AD, with an estimated magnitude of over 7 on the Moment Magnitude Scale (MMS). The damage was made even worse by a fire sparked by the quake, which nearly wiped out most of the city.
As is common with major earthquakes, the region was plagued by a series of aftershocks throughout the following year. Some of these aftershocks were powerful enough to inflict additional severe damage, including one that caused the port of Seleucia Pieria to rise by as much as 1 meter.
The earthquake devastated numerous significant structures, including the Domus Aurea, which was located on an island in the Orontes River. According to reports, only the houses situated in the shadow of the mountain behind Antioch’s harbor remained intact. Among the casualties was Euphrasius, the Patriarch of Antioch, who tragically perished after falling into a cauldron of boiling pitch used by wine producers, with only his head surviving unscathed.
The reconstruction of the Great Church and other buildings was funded by Justin I of Constantinople and overseen by Ephraim, the comes Orientis. Ephraim’s efforts allowed him to succeed Euphrasius as the Chalcedonian Patriarch of Antioch. However, in an almost ironic turn of fate, many of the recently rebuilt religious and government buildings, which had been funded by Justin, were destroyed in another major earthquake in November 528 AD, although this time there were far fewer casualties.
3. Damghan Earthquake 856 AD
Iran has been plagued by some of the most catastrophic earthquakes in modern history. However, few compare to the disaster that struck on December 22, 856 AD.
With an estimated magnitude of 7.9, this earthquake claimed the lives of at least 200,000 people. The destruction was exacerbated by the local geology, which amplified the effects of the quake, causing the maximum damage zone to stretch about 350 km along the southern edge of the eastern Alborz mountains in present-day Iran, impacting areas such as Tabaristan and Gorgan.
The epicenter is believed to have been near the city of Damghan, which was the capital of the Persian province of Qumis at the time. According to the USGS, it ranks as the sixth deadliest earthquake in recorded history. The region experienced numerous aftershocks over the years, including a particularly devastating one centered in western Khurasan that caused further destruction.
Iran lies within a tectonically active zone where the Arabian Plate collides with the Eurasian Plate. This collision zone extends from the Bitlis-Zagros belt in the south to the Greater Caucasus mountains, the Apsheron-Balkan Sill, and the Kopet Dag mountains in the north. The area surrounding the epicenter in the Alborz mountain range experiences both thrusting and left-lateral strike-slip faulting as a result of north-south shortening.
This region continues to be a focal point for geological research, with the Astaneh Fault System believed to have a recurrence interval of approximately 3,700 years.
The quake caused widespread devastation along the Alborz mountain range, impacting towns such as Ahevanu, Astan, Tash, Bastam, and Shahrud. Almost every village in the affected area was either severely damaged or completely destroyed. The ancient city of Hecatompylos, now Šahr-e Qumis, the former capital of Parthia, was obliterated and abandoned. Additionally, half of Damghan and a third of Bustam were also left in ruins.
2. The Seventh Earthquake 749 AD
This earthquake, which occurred along the Dead Sea Transform fault, was a significant event. However, there is a lack of substantial written records, and the few available accounts are often obscured by interpretations that attribute the disaster to divine retribution.
On January 18th, 749 AD, a powerful earthquake struck the region between Palestine and Jordan, with the epicenter likely located in the Golan Heights. Estimated to be well over a magnitude 7, it serves as another example of how religious doctrines of the time suppressed scientific reporting, framing major events primarily as divine wrath.
The earthquake devastated the cities of Tiberias, Beit She’an, Hippos, and Pella, rendering them largely uninhabitable, while many other cities across the Levant suffered heavy damage. Reports suggest tens of thousands of people lost their lives in the disaster.
The reliability of historical accounts from the time can be summed up by two examples: A Coptic priest from Alexandria claimed that support beams in Egyptian homes had shifted, and a Syrian priest stated that a village near Mount Tabor had ‘moved a distance of four miles.’ These reports are hardly credible.
More reliable accounts describe tsunamis in the Mediterranean, several days of aftershocks in Damascus, and entire towns being swallowed by the earth, including some destruction in Jericho. Jerusalem's death toll reached into the thousands, with many buildings, including the Al-Aqsa Mosque, suffering severe damage. The ancient synagogue in Umm el Kanatir was destroyed. Evidence also suggests the quake generated a tsunami, likely caused by an undersea landslide rather than a direct seismic upthrust below the ocean.
Of particular concern, the fault zone responsible for this quake has a history of powerful earthquakes, with records of events occurring in 31 BC, 363 AD, 749 AD, and 1033 AD. This pattern suggests a periodicity of about 350 to 400 years, meaning the region may be overdue for another significant earthquake. The accumulated strain over nearly a millennium could trigger a much larger quake than the one in 749 AD.
1. Beirut Earthquake 551 AD
Once again, we find ourselves in Antioch’s region, near the tectonic boundary of the Dead Sea Transform (also known as the Dead Sea Rift), which marks the division between the Arabian Plate and the African Plate.
In Lebanon, the fault zone forms a restraining bend where the fault trace exhibits a right-stepping offset. This transpressional deformation has given rise to several thrust faults, including the recently identified Mount Lebanon thrust, which runs beneath the city and is believed to extend offshore at the seabed.
The earthquake struck on July 9th, 551 AD, with an estimated magnitude of at least 7.6 MMS. As is often the case with offshore quakes, a tsunami was triggered by the oceanic thrust, causing widespread destruction along the Phoenician coastline and damaging many trade ships used in Phoenicia. The death toll is estimated to be in the high 30,000s, with one account by Antoninus of Piacenza suggesting that Beirut alone saw this staggering loss of life.
The offshore fault likely ruptured over a span of approximately 100km, although some reports suggest it could have extended as far as 150km. This significant length of rupture contributed to the particularly large tsunami generated, and the earthquake was felt from Alexandria all the way to Antioch.
A fascinating discovery is that the recently identified Mount Lebanon thrust was responsible for the rupture and subsequent tsunami. This has been verified and aligns with quaternary uplift, as evidenced by a series of marine-cut terraces between Tripoli and Beirut, which show a continued upward movement of the hanging wall of the proposed thrust. On a smaller scale, an uplifted vermetid bench, which shows a vertical movement of around 80cm, dates back to the sixth century AD, supporting the earthquake's epicenter and its likely role in causing the tsunami. The ongoing uplift above this thrust since the late Miocene Era may also explain the formation of the Mount Lebanon range.
