Buzz
As we age, the structure of our social networks evolves.
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A fascinating symmetry exists in the biological process of aging. At birth, we rely on our caregivers to nourish, transport, and comfort us. As we grow, we move away from them, establishing a broader support system. However, as we age, our bodies begin to deteriorate, and we slowly return to relying on others for care.
As we gain the freedom to drive, bathe, and eat on our own schedule, we also see a decrease in our ability and opportunities to socialize. Certain social circles naturally fade away after retirement or moving to a long-term care facility. From that point on, the frequency of our social interactions depends mainly on our health and mobility. The number of people who will be by our side as we near the end will be small, far fewer than the many relationships we cultivated over the years.
The psychological and social aspects of aging reveal much about how a society values its elderly and the internal processes that unfold as we approach the end of life. How does our influence on society, and vice versa, change as we age? Are older individuals respected for their wisdom and resilience, or are they dismissed as irrelevant? Social gerontologists aim to answer such questions.
Social gerontology emerged in the late 1940s, after World War II. At this time, significant societal changes took place both in the United States and worldwide, prompting sociologists to analyze the differences. Although scholars had long studied the biological aspects of aging, the Social Science Research Council in 1948 found that little attention had been paid to how biology and society intersect [source: Achenbaum and Bengston]. This led to the development of the first formalized psychosocial theory of aging about a decade later.
Social scientists Elaine Cumming and William Henry introduced the disengagement theory of aging in their 1961 book, "Growing Old." Their theory was based on data from the Kansas City Study of Adult Life, where researchers from the University of Chicago tracked hundreds of adults from middle age into old age. What Cumming and Henry discovered is that growing old isn't the idealized image of cozy grandmothers baking cookies for their adoring families. In reality, old age often brings loneliness.
How Elderly Withdrawal Works (Theoretically)
Cumming and Henry's disengagement theory presents a grim view of old age. Take the case of Connie, an elderly woman who is a retired college professor and widow. Despite her relatively good health, the loss of her husband and several close friends takes a toll on her emotional well-being. She stays engaged by playing bridge and volunteering at a soup kitchen, and her adult children stay in touch. However, as time passes, Connie's arthritis prevents her from cooking at the soup kitchen, and a fall in the shower results in a broken hip. Afterward, her children arrange for a nurse to visit daily. Now confined to her home, Connie loses touch with her bridge friends and, as her health deteriorates, only has the energy to spend time with her family. By the time of her death, her many social connections have dwindled to just a few close relationships.
Cumming and Henry's model suggests that the major shift in the interaction between older individuals and society occurs when seniors become fully aware of the limited time they have left. For Connie, this awareness likely set in after her hip injury, which robbed her of her independence. Once this realization takes hold, elderly individuals begin to withdraw both consciously and unconsciously from many of their social circles. At the same time, society also distances itself from the elderly, and the roles and authority once held by older members are passed on to younger generations.
From Cumming and Henry's sociological perspective, disengagement also brings theoretical advantages. For one, it provides the elderly with a new role. Connie, who was once a wife, mother, professor, and community volunteer, loses the ability to play these roles as she ages, facilitating her disengagement. In industrialized nations, the disengagement theory also ensures a productive labor force by encouraging older individuals whose skills may have declined to voluntarily step away from the workforce. Ultimately, complete disengagement allows an individual to peacefully approach death.
If this assessment seems overly severe, you're not alone in your thoughts. When the disengagement theory gained attention in academic circles, it was met with mixed reactions. While some scholars praised its thoroughness and clarity, others found its conclusions inconsistent with their observations of elderly individuals who remained active and engaged until their death. Surely, some argued, aging doesn't necessarily lead to inevitable isolation.
Disengagement is an unavoidable process in which many relationships between an aging individual and other members of society are severed, with those that remain often changing in nature [source: Cumming and Henry].
Critiques of the Aging Disengagement Theory
The disengagement theory suggests that as we age, we retreat from society.
©iStockphoto/cjmckendryShortly after "Growing Old" was published, sociologists proposed alternative aging models that contradicted the disengagement theory. These new perspectives present a more optimistic view of the shift from active adulthood to senior dependency. Both theories emphasize that the elderly continue to play a significant role in society until their final days and that society values the contributions of older individuals.
- Activity theory offers a clear contrast to disengagement. It argues that the older population can remain engaged and active, and that maintaining this involvement is actually the best way to age. The only difference between old age and middle age is biological, not societal expectations or needs [source: Schulz and Rockwood].
- Continuity theory offers a more subtle view on staying active and engaged throughout life. It suggests that as people age, they rely on the most effective social structures they’ve established over time [source: Schulz and Rockwood]. This adaptation helps mitigate the physical and social challenges that come with aging.
In modern times, the disengagement theory is mostly seen as outdated. Research shows that socializing in old age offers significant health benefits, often more than isolating oneself. Today's long-term care facilities are designed to promote interaction and activity among residents. The connection between aging and depression underscores the importance of maintaining relationships for the elderly.
Building on the Kansas City Study of Adult Life, a national study on social connections in old age was conducted by researchers at the University of Chicago between 2005 and 2006. This recent research showed that retirement and the later years often lead to stronger connections with certain social networks and a withdrawal from others. Specifically, old age is associated with a smaller but more intimate social circle, alongside closer relationships with neighbors, increased participation in religious activities, and more volunteering [source: Cornwell, Laumann and Schumm].
From the viewpoint of modern sociology, aging should be viewed as a fluid process rather than a sharp, dramatic decline. While physical deterioration is inevitable and limits one's capabilities, the ideal aging experience unfolds as a gradual transition, supported by the people and communities surrounding us.
