What Made Phrenology a Victorian Era Phenomenon?

In the 19th century, phrenologists believed that analyzing the bumps and contours of your skull could reveal insights into your romantic compatibility, parenting style, or ideal career. This idea persuaded countless individuals to pay for skull examinations.

During the Victorian era, phrenology emerged as a widespread movement, gaining such popularity that phrenology parlors and even automated phrenology machines became common across Europe and America. Public demonstrations, often featuring live head readings, were seen as both informative and entertaining.

Phrenology captivated individuals across all social strata. The middle and working classes were particularly fascinated by the notion that such scientific insights equated to power. Even Queen Victoria and Prince Albert were intrigued enough to have their children's skulls analyzed.

Despite its widespread popularity and entertainment value, phrenology's prominence was fleeting. By the early 20th century, the so-called science of phrenology was discredited. Today, it is regarded as a pseudoscience, rarely discussed in "Intro to Psychology" courses. Yet, does phrenology hold any merit?

In a way, yes.

What Are the Origins of Phrenology?

The concept that skull shape could indicate intelligence and personality traits originated with German physician Franz Joseph Gall in the late 18th century during his medical studies. Gall observed that peers with larger eyes and broader foreheads excelled at memorizing lengthy texts. He concluded that emotional traits were governed not by the heart, as previously believed, but by specific areas of the brain.

In the 1790s, Gall began exploring the localization of mental functions within the brain, proposing that specific regions governed psychological processes. He theorized that the skull's shape mirrored personality traits and cognitive abilities, corresponding to the brain's structure. Initially calling this field "craniology," he later renamed it "organology" after concluding that the brain was a collection of distinct organs.

In 1800, Gall collaborated with Johann Christoph Spurzheim to advance this theory. They worked together for over a decade before parting ways. Spurzheim became fascinated by the psychosocial applications of this science, envisioning it as a tool for self-improvement. He rebranded the practice as "phrenology," labeling it "the science of the mind," and embarked on a lecture tour across Britain to promote it. The concept gained rapid popularity, capturing the attention of Scottish lawyer George Combe, who founded the Edinburgh Phrenological Society in 1820, the first major phrenology organization in Great Britain.

In 1832, Spurzheim arrived in America with the goal of popularizing phrenology. However, he overworked himself and died just three months later. Despite his short time, he successfully inspired the entrepreneurial Fowler brothers (Orson Squire and Lorenzo Niles Fowler) and their associate Samuel Roberts Wells to champion the cause.

The Fowlers, including Lorenzo's wife Lydia, rose to prominence as leading phrenologists in the U.S. They traveled across the nation to promote the "truth about phrenology." In 1838, they established the Phrenological Museum in Philadelphia, where they launched the American Phrenological Journal. Their New York office, known as the Phrenological Cabinet, became one of the city's most popular attractions.

By the mid-19th century, phrenology had reached its peak popularity. People eagerly attended lectures, sought skull readings, and even styled their hair to accentuate their most prominent head bumps. The practice expanded to include using phrenology to defend or rehabilitate criminals, assess one's affinity for children, and evaluate marital compatibility.

The Pseudoscience Behind Phrenology

Gall, the founder of phrenology, theorized that the brain's pressure created ridges or indentations on the skull's surface, with these features corresponding to 27 distinct behaviors and traits he termed "faculties." (Spurzheim later expanded this list with additional faculties.)

By feeling and measuring these skull areas using hands or instruments like tape measures and calipers, Gall claimed he could identify specific personality traits in individuals.

Gall developed his faculty mapping system by studying the skulls of diverse individuals, including prisoners, the sick, and patients in mental institutions. He particularly focused on unusually shaped heads. Through this research, he identified patterns. For instance, after examining young pickpockets, he noted that many had bumps above their ears, which he interpreted as a sign of "acquisitiveness"—a tendency toward theft, hoarding, or greed.

These core faculties were illustrated in diagrams and three-dimensional busts, which became the iconic symbols of phrenology. Each faculty was linked to a specific brain region. Below is a sample of the traits mapped by phrenology (see the full list here).

1. Amativeness (strongly influenced by love, particularly romantic or sexual love)

2. Philoprogenitiveness (a strong inclination to care for one's children; parental affection)

3. Inhabitiveness (a tendency to stay in one place; resistance to change)

4. Adhesiveness (a desire to form deep connections with others; friendship)

5. Combativeness (a natural inclination to engage in conflict or fighting)

6. Destructiveness (a propensity to cause destruction or harm)

7. Secretiveness (a tendency to hide or conceal information)

8. Acquisitiveness (a strong desire to obtain or collect possessions)

9. Constructiveness (an inclination to build or create things)

10. Self-esteem

11. Love of approbation (a craving for recognition and admiration)

Why Was Phrenology Debunked?

Despite its popularity, phrenology faced criticism from scientists and religious groups who argued that it promoted materialism and atheism and undermined moral values.

Phrenology also suffered from inconsistencies. Practitioners couldn't agree on the number of faculties, with some listing up to 39, and struggled to pinpoint their exact locations. Lacking scientific credibility, phrenology was eventually grouped with pseudosciences like astrology, numerology, and palmistry.

Phrenology was discredited in the early to mid-1800s by the renowned French physician Marie Jean Pierre Flourens, who denied any connection between skull bumps and brain shape. He demonstrated that the brain functions as a unified organ, with one area potentially compensating for damage in another. Despite this, phrenology persisted into the early 20th century, being misapplied in psychology and exploited by eugenicists and Nazis to justify racist ideologies.

Further discrediting phrenology, Oxford researcher Oiwi Parker Jones and his team published a study in the April 2018 issue of Cortex. Using MRI scans, they examined whether skull contours correlated with cognitive and lifestyle traits, comparing them to Gall's 27 faculties. "Our study aimed to thoroughly test phrenology's core claim: that skull shape reliably predicts mental abilities. We found no evidence supporting this," the researchers stated.

Is Phrenology Still Used Today?

In psychologist Colin G. DeYoung's office at the University of Minnesota, there's a phrenology head. "It was a joke gift," he explains. "It's funny how people associate it with our work."

DeYoung considers phrenology "historically intriguing" but fundamentally flawed. "The notion that skull shape reflects brain structure is baseless," he says. "Moreover, their brain function map is entirely fabricated. There's no scientific validity to it."

Where Gall was correct was in his belief that personality, thoughts, and emotions are linked to specific brain regions. Today, researchers like DeYoung are leveraging advanced technology to explore how different brain areas function and influence personality traits.

DeYoung's work in the growing field of "personality neuroscience" replaces phrenology charts with neuroimaging and molecular genetics to connect personality traits to brain functions. His research seeks to uncover how variations in brain activity contribute to differences in personality.

While this research may not fulfill phrenology's promise of helping people find their soulmate, it could eventually aid in treating mental health conditions, according to DeYoung.