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Around 300 BCE, the Chinese began crafting spicy pastes from fermented fish guts. Centuries later, the Greek historian Pliny recommended using ground seeds from a common plant to treat scorpion stings. These curious tales mark the humble beginnings of ketchup and mustard, two condiments that the people of the United States now spend over $1 billion on annually. How did two condiments with such ancient roots come to be inseparable from the iconic hot dog and hamburger?
Mustard: A Medicinal Miracle Turned Flavorful Delight
Mustard has stood the test of time—the plant from which this beloved condiment is derived could very well have been one of the earliest crops ever grown.
Mustard comes in various species, most of which belong to the Brassica or Sinapis genera. The plant, related to broccoli and cabbage, along with its seeds, first appeared in the archaeological record in China around 6800 years ago. Initially, mustard seeds were used as a spice and a medicine, with Indian and Sumerian texts from around 2000 BCE mentioning their medicinal properties.
Mustard in its paste form emerged about 2500 years ago. The Greeks and Romans mixed ground mustard seeds with unfermented grape juice, known as 'must', to create a smooth paste. This mixture wasn't originally a food item but rather a remedy—thanks to mustard seeds' glucosinolates, which break down into isothiocyanates, powerful antioxidants that reduce inflammation and provide mustard its sharp, tingling flavor.
The Greeks and Romans valued mustard for its medicinal qualities, using it for a wide range of ailments. Hippocrates even recommended mustard to alleviate aches and pains. While many of these uses have been debunked by modern science—for example, mustard isn't a cure for epilepsy as the Romans once thought—it still serves as a natural remedy for conditions like arthritis, back pain, and sore throats.
During their medicinal experiments, the Greeks and Romans discovered that ground mustard seeds were also quite flavorful. In the first century CE, Roman agricultural author Lucius Junius Moderatus Columella documented the first recorded mustard recipe in his work 'De Re Rustica', calling for acid and ground mustard seeds—the very same basic formula used for making mustard today.
Ketchup: From Fish Sauce to Plum Paste
Meanwhile, halfway across the world, another beloved condiment was undergoing its own transformation.
Ketchup first emerged in China around 300 BCE. In the Amoy dialect of Chinese, 'kôe-chiap' means 'the brine of pickled fish,' according to the Oxford English Dictionary. Nineteenth-century ethnologist Terrien de Lacouperie speculated that the term may have come from a Chinese community outside of China. Regardless, the name is about the only thing the original version of ketchup shared with the modern red sauce in your fridge. It was much more similar to garum, a fish sauce once highly popular in Ancient Roman cooking. (In fact, modern versions of garum are still used in high-end restaurants like Denmark’s Noma.) Some even suggest that Asian fish sauce may be a descendant of garum.
The Chinese version of ketchup, made from fish sauce, was likely created by fermenting ingredients like fish entrails, soybeans, and meat byproducts. Fermentation produces byproducts like ethanol, the substance that gives us beer and wine, and monosodium glutamate (MSG). Though there are many theories surrounding MSG, it’s important to note that glutamates occur naturally in foods like tomatoes, beef, and parmesan cheese—and our bodies even produce them. MSG contributes a savory, elusive flavor known as umami.
The fish paste created through fermentation possessed this umami flavor, which was used to add a salty, savory richness to a variety of dishes. Moreover, fermentation produces beneficial microorganisms while preventing the growth of harmful bacteria that cause food to spoil. This made the early version of ketchup perfect for long voyages, as it could be stored for months without going bad—a crucial advantage when trade routes could take months to navigate.
As ketchup spread across the globe, it underwent several changes. Trade routes brought it to Indonesia and the Philippines, where British traders likely first encountered and grew fond of the distinctive seasoning. By the time ketchup reached Great Britain in the early 1700s, Western chefs began to adapt it to their own tastes. One of the first English recipes for ketchup, found in Eliza Smith’s 1727 book 'The Compleat Housewife', called for anchovies, shallots, ginger, cloves, and horseradish.
Some versions of ketchup used oysters as the seafood ingredient, while others completely omitted the fish. Common bases for ketchup during this period included peaches, plums, celery seed, mushrooms, nuts, lemon, and beer. Like its predecessors, these sauces were often salty, flavorful, and had a long shelf-life, but beyond that, they could vary widely. The term 'ketchup' eventually became a broad designation for any spiced condiment served with a meal, with 'spiced' referring to ingredients like cinnamon or nutmeg rather than heat. Walnut ketchup is said to have been Jane Austen's preferred variety.
A Transformation for Mustard
Mustard underwent its own transformation as it spread throughout Europe. When the Romans invaded what is now France in the 1st century BCE, the mustard seeds they introduced flourished in the region’s fertile soil. Locals, including monks living in the French countryside, quickly adopted the condiment, and by the 9th century, monasteries had turned mustard production into an important source of income.
Mustard also found its place in more prestigious settings. Pope John XXII, a notable fan of the condiment, appointed a 'Grand Moutardier du Pape,' or 'Grand Mustard-Maker to the Pope.' As one of the Avignon popes, who resided in what is now France instead of Rome, he created this mustard-making position for his unemployed nephew, who lived in Dijon—already the mustard capital of France by the 14th century.
Even French royalty developed a love for mustard. King Louis XI considered it an essential part of his diet, so much so that he traveled with a personal pot of the sauce to ensure he could never eat a meal without it.
Dijon’s Hidden Secret
Mustard comes in various forms—yellow, spicy brown, English, Chinese, and German, among others. But for some condiment enthusiasts, the word 'mustard' is synonymous with the velvety Dijon variety, which has been an integral part of French cuisine for centuries.
In 1634, it was officially declared that authentic French mustard could only be produced in Dijon. This recipe was a cornerstone of French cooking, but an innovative approach showed that there was still room to refine it.
Jean Naigeon, a native of Dijon, experimented with the recipe in 1752 by replacing the traditional vinegar with verjuice, the tart juice from unripe grapes. This small alteration introduced the smooth, creamy texture we now associate with Dijon mustard. Today, most Dijon mustard is made using white wine or wine vinegar to replicate the original verjuice flavor. Interestingly, most Dijon mustard is no longer made in Dijon. Unlike products such as Champagne or Parmigiano-Reggiano, which are protected by their geographical origins, Dijon mustard no longer enjoys such protection.
The Dijon mustard you're most likely to find on your supermarket shelf is probably Grey Poupon. In 1866, inventor Maurice Grey collaborated with financier Auguste Poupon to transform the mustard-making industry. Grey’s automated mustard-making machine propelled the artisan craft into the Industrial Age. Nowadays, much of Grey Poupon mustard is produced in American factories.
Ketchup and "Love Apples"
While mustard was on its way to greatness, ketchup was still figuring out how to make its mark on the history of culinary condiments. After making its way to America via British colonization, ketchup partnered with its most iconic ingredient: the tomato, which would become its defining partner for years to come.
The British had tried turning nearly everything into ketchup, but tomatoes were an exception—at least initially, since some Europeans thought the New World fruit was poisonous when explorers first introduced it in the 16th century. It’s possible that some wealthy English individuals did fall ill after eating tomatoes, though it may have been for reasons other than what they thought. The acid in tomatoes may have reacted with lead from the pewter plates they ate from, causing lead poisoning which they mistakenly attributed to the tomatoes. Many food historians argue that this theory doesn't hold much weight, since lead poisoning takes time to manifest and could not be blamed on a single meal. It's more likely that tomatoes were associated with other poisonous plants from Europe and were feared for this reason. Regardless of the exact cause, by the late 1500s, anti-tomato texts were common in England.
This tomato fear might have persisted among English Americans, had it not been for passionate advocates. One of these was Philadelphia-based scientist and horticulturist James Mease. He called tomatoes 'love apples' and in 1812, he published the first known recipe for tomato ketchup.
Sadly, the term 'love apples' never caught on, but tomato ketchup did. People who were afraid of tomatoes found comfort in eating them in processed forms. Additionally, ketchup may have benefited from a touch of medical quackery. Dr. John Cook Bennett promoted tomatoes as cures for a range of ailments from diarrhea to indigestion. He published his own recipes for tomato ketchup, and eventually, the product was marketed in pill form as a patent medicine, helping to shift public opinion about the health benefits of tomatoes.
In truth, early tomato ketchup was actually more hazardous than fresh tomatoes. The first commercially sold versions were poorly preserved, leading to jars filled with harmful bacteria—not the beneficial kind. Some manufacturers took shortcuts, adding dangerously high amounts of artificial preservatives. Coal tar was even included in ketchup to give it its vibrant red color.
It was the Heinz company that played a key role in transforming ketchup from a potential health risk to a beloved, everyday condiment.
Heinz's Ketchup Innovation
In 1869, Pennsylvania entrepreneur Henry J. Heinz began his condiment career by selling his mother’s horseradish recipe. Seven years later, he recognized the need for quality in the ketchup market. Heinz's first bottles of ketchup were introduced in 1876, and over time, the company would make several changes that helped it stand out from competitors.
To start, Heinz eliminated the use of coal tar. Instead, he combined distilled vinegar with ripe, fresh tomatoes. His formula was not only shelf-stable, but it also tasted great. However, what truly set Heinz apart was the introduction of clear, glass bottles for packaging. Before Heinz, ketchup had been sold in brown bottles to mask its poor quality. With Heinz, consumers knew exactly what they were getting.
The Heinz ketchup bottle stands as one of the most iconic food packaging designs ever made, and it has likely shaped how you view the product. This influence even extends to the spelling of the word. If you write C-A-T-S-U-P, you might receive strange looks, but it’s an entirely valid, older spelling of the word, which was actually the preferred version in America for many years. Heinz chose to spell his condiment as 'ketchup' with a K, setting it apart from the catsup with a C used by others. Today, Heinz's version is commonly accepted as the correct spelling.
Yellow Mustard and the Hot Dog: A Match Made in Culinary Heaven
Mustard arrived in America soon after the first European settlers, but the distinctly American yellow mustard didn’t make its debut until much later—at the 1904 World's Fair in St. Louis, when the R.T. French Company introduced their new 'cream salad mustard.'
Fairgoers may have missed the product if not for an unusual new ingredient. While mustard is typically brown or beige, Brothers George and Francis French added turmeric to their mustard, giving it a bright, neon yellow color.
To pair their condiment with a fitting dish, the Frenches chose the hot dog—a food that was still relatively new to Americans at the time. More than a century later, R.T. French Company's cream salad mustard, better known as French’s yellow mustard, remains a classic topping for hot dogs.
Ketchup and mustard have undoubtedly earned their spots as culinary icons. Surprisingly, however, neither of these condiments holds the title of the top-selling in the U.S. That honor goes to ranch dressing, which became a $1 billion industry by 2019.
