Top 10 Best Essays Analyzing the First Two Stanzas of 'Bình Ngô Đại Cáo'

The opening of the proclamation presents a key idea that underpins the entire piece.

‘The essence of humanity lies in securing the peace of the people
The army must strike first to eliminate tyranny.’

This idea of humanity is not a general concept but one connected to the goals of 'securing the people' and 'eliminating tyranny', which reflect patriotism and compassion. It is substantiated by the existence of Đại Việt as a historical truth:

‘Our Đại Việt has long been known,
Its civilization has endured for centuries,
The borders have been defined,
The customs of North and South are distinct;
From the reigns of Triệu, Đinh, Lý, and Trần; generations built independence;
Alongside the Han, Tang, Song, and Yuan; each kingdom dominated its territory;
Though strength varied over time,
Great heroes have emerged in every era.’

This passage highlights all the elements of an independent nation: its name, culture, territory, customs, people, and especially its ‘independence’ that has been forged through the ages. With strong, decisive language, Nguyễn Trãi asserts the nation's sovereignty. He uses a parallel listing of dynasties to underscore the long history of the nation and emphasize Đại Việt’s independent status on par with the great empires of the North. It also hints at the inevitable downfall of any invader that threatens the sovereignty of the nation. Hence:

‘Lưu Cung sought to expand and failed;
Triệu Tiết, with great ambition, perished;
The trap at Hàm Tử captured Toa Đô
And the Bạch Đằng River claimed Ô Mã.’

Nguyễn Trãi vividly showcases the heroic victories of the Vietnamese people in their struggle against foreign invaders, securing the freedom of their homeland. The strong, confident language and specific examples highlight national pride.

When speaking of Đại Việt, the author is filled with national pride. The parallel structure of the lines creates a solemn tone, affirming the nation's independence. The comparison of Vietnamese dynasties to those of China further emphasizes this proud independence, showcasing a deep sense of nationalism.

The second stanza is a fierce indictment of the crimes committed by the invading Ming forces. Nguyễn Trãi exposes their nefarious plans: taking advantage of the weakened Hồ dynasty, the Ming forces invaded Vietnam:

‘The Hồ dynasty’s corrupt governance
Made the people resentful and angry.
The ruthless Ming took advantage and caused disaster
....
Deceiving heaven and tricking the people with countless schemes
They waged war and caused hatred for twenty years.’

The author condemns these actions as crimes that have ‘destroyed humanity and ravaged the earth’ and describes the brutal, inhumane acts committed by the invaders, such as massacring civilians, including children, and exploiting the people through heavy taxes. They looted the country’s resources, pushing the population to the brink of despair, with even lives no longer secure:

‘People were forced into the sea to search for pearls, risking life among sharks and giant fish
Others were sent to the mountains to pan for gold, enduring the dangers of poisonous waters and deep forests.
They even destroyed the very life of insects and plants,
Pushing the poor into despair, even the widows were left destitute.
Laborers suffered terribly,
Professions were ruined, leaving society shattered.’

The consequences of their actions were devastating: families torn apart, wives lost husbands, children left orphaned, countless species destroyed, and economic production halted, plunging the people into extreme suffering.

To demonstrate the enemy’s crimes, the author uses selective listing and vivid imagery, shifting the tone to match the emotional intensity. At times, there is palpable anger toward the ruthless invaders, while at other moments, the tone reflects sorrow and compassion for the Vietnamese people.

The opening of this indictment presents a striking image: 'The burning of innocent people in cruel flames – burying the children in the pits of disaster,' which leads to a final, all-encompassing image: ‘The cruelty is so great, the Nam Sơn mountains cannot contain all the crimes – The stench is so foul, the waters of the East Sea cannot cleanse it.’ And ultimately, the judgment of the Vietnamese people is delivered:

'Could the heavens and earth ever forgive?
Who can claim that the gods and humans can endure this?'

Nguyễn Trãi was not only a prominent official but also a renowned writer and an outstanding cultural figure of the nation. His contributions to the treasure trove of medieval Vietnamese literature are significant, with "Bình Ngô đại cáo" being one of his most exceptional works. This proclamation is considered the nation's second declaration of independence. In particular, through the first and second sections of this work, readers can clearly see the righteous cause of our people as well as the brutal crimes of the enemy.

First, the opening passage of "Bình Ngô đại cáo" presents the fundamental principle of justice and the truth of national independence, which serves as the foundation and theoretical basis throughout our struggle for freedom.

The principle of righteousness lies in bringing peace to the people
The army should first focus on eliminating tyranny.

It is evident that the concept of "righteousness" has always been a core idea in Confucianism, reflecting the relationship between people based on love and morality. As a Confucian scholar, deeply influenced by Confucian thought, Nguyễn Trãi’s philosophy is built on this very principle of righteousness. For Nguyễn Trãi, "righteousness" is inseparable from the goal of "bringing peace to the people" and, to achieve this, the elimination of tyranny is necessary to ensure a prosperous and peaceful life for the people. Therefore, the essence of Nguyễn Trãi’s philosophy is rooted in the people, for their well-being, and the fight against tyranny for the sake of their happiness.

Additionally, the author emphasizes the eternal truth of national independence.

Like the Đại Việt nation from ancient times
Long known for its culture and civilization
With clear borders and distinct traditions
North and South have their own customs
From the Triệu, Đinh, Lý, and Trần dynasties; generations built independence
Alongside the Han, Tang, Song, Yuan; each empire ruled one side
Although their strengths varied, there were always heroes in every era.

In just a short paragraph, Nguyễn Trãi conjures up a millennia-long history of the Đại Việt nation’s rich culture. Like other nations, our country has had a long-standing civilization, defined borders, and unique customs between the North and South. The nation has experienced various dynasties, standing side by side with the feudal dynasties of the North. By placing our dynasties on equal footing with China’s, Nguyễn Trãi not only affirms the independence and traditions of our people but also expresses a deep sense of pride and national dignity. Furthermore, to assert the truth of our independence, Nguyễn Trãi cleverly cites the glorious victories of our people in history.

Lưu Cung’s ambition led to failure
Triệu Tiết’s great ambitions ended in death
The battle of Hàm Tử captured Toa Đô
The Bạch Đằng River claimed Ô Mã’s life.

Building upon the theoretical foundation presented, the next part of the proclamation shines a light on the enemy’s monstrous crimes. The primary crime of the invaders was their exploitation of internal turmoil as a pretext to invade our land.

The Hồ family caused internal strife
Leading to widespread resentment among the people
The tyrannical Ming seized the opportunity to bring disaster
Traitors sold out the country for personal gain.

Not only did they invade, but they also imposed inhumane, cruel policies.

Roasting common people in ruthless flames
Throwing helpless children into deep pits of misery.

The invaders were ruthless, slaughtering innocent civilians in horrific ways, even sparing no “commoners” or young children. By using inversion in the verses, placing the verbs “roasting” and “throwing” at the beginning of the lines, the author emphasizes the cruelty and brutality of the invaders. Additionally, they massacred the people by pushing them into perilous situations where their survival was unlikely.

Some were forced into the sea to search for gems, preyed upon by sharks and serpents.
Others were sent to the mountains to sift for gold, enduring the hardships of deep forests and poisonous waters.

Furthermore, the invaders’ crimes extended to exploiting resources, imposing excessive taxes, and destroying the environment.

They scavenged the land, trapping birds with nets, disturbing the people with snares for deer, setting traps everywhere.

Finally, the author concludes the second section with two powerful lines, rich in imagery, that leave a lasting impact on the reader:

The cruelty of it all, the South Mountain’s bamboo cannot record every crime,
The filth of it all, the East Sea’s waters cannot wash away the stench.

Nguyễn Trãi uses the limitless nature of the "South Mountain's bamboo" and the "East Sea's waters" to symbolize the vastness of the enemy's crimes. Through this, the reader can grasp the idea that these atrocities are beyond measure and description. Faced with such actions from the Ming, our people had no choice but to rise up and take action.

Could the heavens and earth forgive them?
Who can claim that the gods would tolerate such cruelty?

In conclusion, with unique imagery and sharp language, the opening two sections of "Bình Ngô đại cáo" not only convey the righteous cause and national independence but also highlight the unforgivable crimes of the enemy.

When discussing the greatest political writers of medieval Vietnamese literature, we cannot omit the name Nguyễn Trãi. He was not only a profound lyric poet but also an outstanding political writer with works such as "Quân trung từ mệnh tập", royal decrees from the Lê dynasty, and most notably the "Bình Ngô đại cáo". These political writings demonstrate his deep patriotism and concern for the people.

The opening line of the proclamation reveals his philosophy of benevolence:

"The matter of benevolence lies in securing peace for the people.
The army must first punish and eliminate the tyrants."

"Benevolence" refers to love for the people and actions for the benefit of society and the community. Moreover, it involves respecting what is right and standing for justice. Under the influence of Confucian thought, Nguyễn Trãi viewed "benevolence" as "securing peace for the people" and "eliminating tyranny". The well-being and prosperity of the people must be prioritized. Humans must share love and work together to defend the nation and escape the hardships of oppression. Achieving this requires eradicating tyrannical forces and fierce invaders, namely the Ming forces who were invading the country at that time. Nguyễn Trãi's philosophy of benevolence is rooted in patriotism, care for the people, and a fierce spirit of resistance against foreign invaders. This philosophy extends not only to interpersonal relationships but also to the relationship between nations.

To affirm the country's sovereignty, Nguyễn Trãi provided compelling evidence and convincing arguments:

"Our Đại Việt has long been known,
For its long-standing civilization.
The mountains and rivers are clearly divided,
North and South customs differ.
From the Triệu, Đinh, Lý, and Trần dynasties, we established independence,
Just as the Han, Tang, Song, Yuan dynasties each claimed their own empires.
Though strength may differ at times,
Every era has its heroes."

The civilization of our nation has existed for thousands of years, creating a distinct identity for the people. This is complemented by the division of territory, mountains, rivers, and the unique customs of both the North and South, illustrating that we are a nation with sovereignty, heroes, and patriots who have always fought to defend our land. Moreover, Nguyễn Trãi placed our dynasties on equal footing with the dynasties of China, such as the Han, Tang, Song, and Yuan. Just as the Northern dynasties thrived, our Vietnamese dynasties were equally strong. This underscores the deep sense of national pride of the author.

He recalled the great victories of Đại Việt as a confirmation of the enemy's miserable defeat:

"Lưu Cung, overconfident, was defeated,
Triệu Tiết, arrogant, met his end.
The battle of Hàm Tử captured Toa Đô,
The Bạch Đằng river witnessed the defeat of Ô Mã.
Past events testify,
The evidence remains."

Generals from the Tang and Yuan dynasties were crushed by our great commanders. Their arrogance and overconfidence led to their downfall. These historical events are preserved in our records to remind future generations. The use of comparisons, equating our dynasties with those of the North, alongside the solemn and heroic tone in the first section of the proclamation, clearly highlights the author's philosophy of benevolence.

He denounced the crimes of the Ming invaders against our people:

"The Hồ dynasty's governance was burdensome,
Leading to widespread resentment.
The reckless Ming forces took advantage to invade,
While traitors sold out the country for personal gain."

The Ming army exploited the Hồ dynasty's internal struggles to seize the opportunity to invade our country. Their invasion trampled on our land, leaving the people filled with hatred and resentment. Opportunistic traitors, seeking personal glory, assisted the invaders without fighting for the nation or the people.

The crimes committed by the Ming invaders were unforgivable:

"They burned the people alive on cruel flames,
Buried the innocent in the pits of disaster.
Deceiving heaven and fooling the people with countless schemes,
Creating war and bitterness for over twenty years.
They shattered righteousness and polluted the earth,
The heavy taxes stripped the land bare."

The people suffered under the ruthless occupation of the Ming, enduring cruel and inhumane treatment. The invaders burned and buried our people in their quest for power. They imposed absurd taxes, used deceitful tactics, and inflicted brutal torture on innocent civilians. Not only did they oppress our people, but they also destroyed our environment:

"People were forced into the seas to harvest pearls, fearing sharks and sea serpents.
Others were sent to the mountains to pan for gold, amidst poisonous waters and dangerous creatures.
They scavenged the land, trapping birds for their feathers, setting snares for deer, creating endless traps."

Under Ming occupation, the people were forced into perilous tasks, often facing deadly consequences, as they sought treasures for the invaders. They were reduced to slaves, constantly at risk of attack from savage creatures like sharks and sea serpents. The invaders sought to plunder the land's wealth, even trapping birds and deer for their own benefit. The Ming's greed knew no bounds.

The invaders did not only endanger human lives but also ravaged the environment and the natural resources of the land:

"They wreaked havoc on the land, damaging both plants and animals,
Driven by their insatiable greed, they built endlessly, causing destruction."

For the people, it was a time of deep sorrow, as they faced endless suffering under the ruthless rule of the invaders:

"The burdens of labor were heavy,
Dispersing the very fabric of our traditional industries."

The crimes of the Ming were so vast that they could not be fully recorded. The suffering of our people and the damage to the land were beyond measure:

"The wickedness of the invaders is so great, not even the bamboos of Nam Sơn can record all their sins,
Nor can the waters of Đông Hải cleanse their filthy deeds.
How could heaven and earth forgive them?
Who among the gods and men could endure such crimes?"

Not even the bamboos of Nam Sơn or the waters of Đông Hải could account for the full extent of the invaders' crimes. Their actions were so vile that even the heavens and earth could not forgive them. The rhetorical question at the end of the second section emphasizes once again the monstrous crimes of the enemy. We can never forgive those who slaughtered our people and desecrated our land.

The contrast between the innocent, oppressed people and the ruthless invaders, coupled with the impassioned, logical tone, vividly displays Nguyễn Trãi's philosophy of benevolence. The first two sections of the proclamation serve as a powerful indictment of the brutal actions of the Ming invaders, illustrating the extreme suffering, oppression, and plunder our people endured over twenty years of war.

The author begins the proclamation by introducing a significant principle that governs the entire text. The idea of humanity and righteousness lies in ensuring the people's peace, and military action must first aim to eliminate tyranny. This concept of righteousness is not merely abstract but is tied to the core purpose of protecting the people and the nation. It is substantiated by the historical truth of the existence of Đại Việt as a sovereign nation:

Our Đại Việt, from ancient times,
Has always been known for its enduring civilization,
Its territory clearly defined,
And distinct customs between the North and the South;
From the reigns of Triệu, Đinh, Lý, Trần, the foundation of independence has been built,
Parallel to the dynasties of Han, Tang, Song, Yuan, each ruling their own domain;
Though strength fluctuated, the land has always had its heroes.

These lines express the fundamental elements of an independent nation: its name, its culture, its borders, its customs, its people, and most importantly, the “independence” built over generations. With firm and decisive words, Nguyễn Trãi boldly asserts the nation's sovereignty. By listing the successive dynasties of Đại Việt, he emphasizes the long-standing history of the nation, and asserts its independent standing alongside the great powers of China.

This passage also implicitly predicts the inevitable failure of any invader who dares to encroach upon the independence of the Vietnamese people:

Thus:

Lưu Cung's greed led to his downfall;
Triệu Tiết's ambition led to his death;
At the gates of Hàm Tử, Toa Đô was captured;
On the Bạch Đằng River, Ô Mã was slain.

Through these lines, Nguyễn Trãi highlights the heroic victories of the nation in its resistance against foreign invaders, preserving the freedom of the fatherland. The use of concrete examples and assured, powerful language expresses a deep sense of national pride.

When speaking of Đại Việt, the author’s words are filled with profound national pride. The use of parallel construction in the lines creates a tone of solemnity, reinforcing the idea of an independent and self-governing nation. The comparison of the Vietnamese dynasties to the Chinese ones further emphasizes the strength and self-respect of the Vietnamese people. Only with immense national pride could such a comparison be made.

The second part of the text serves as a sharp indictment of the crimes committed by the Ming invaders. Nguyễn Trãi unveils their malicious plan, taking advantage of the weakness of the Hồ dynasty to invade our land:

In the Hồ family, the administration was troubled,
Leading to the people's deep resentment.
The ruthless Ming army seized the opportunity to wreak havoc
…….
Deceiving heaven, misleading the people with countless schemes,
Fomenting war and hatred for twenty years.

The author condemns these actions as crimes, stating that “losing humanity has torn apart heaven and earth,” and recounts the brutal atrocities committed by the invaders. These included mass killings, sparing no one, including children: “Roasting the innocent on a burning flame – burying the little ones in a pit of disaster.” They also exploited the people through heavy taxes and looted the nation's resources, driving the people to the brink of despair, where even their lives were at risk:

People were forced into the sea, diving for gems, with sharks and reptiles waiting.

Others were sent into the mountains to pan for gold, suffering from poison and hunger.

Their cruelty was so extreme that they destroyed nature itself:

- They ravaged insects, plants, and trees,
Leaving the helpless people in misery.

- The burden of forced labor was heavy,
Destroying the livelihoods of all trades.

The consequences of their actions were devastating: families were torn apart, widows lost their husbands, orphans were left to fend for themselves, wildlife was destroyed, and production came to a halt. To highlight these crimes, the author uses selective enumeration, rich imagery, and flexible shifts in tone, evoking anger and sorrow. At times, the language expresses a deep fury against the brutal invaders, while at other moments, it conveys the deep sorrow for the suffering of the people.

In the opening of this indictment, the image of “Roasting the innocent on a burning flame – burying the little ones in a pit of disaster” stands out, and it concludes with a powerful image of the unrepentant nature of the invaders: “The crimes are so heinous that the Nam Sơn mountains cannot record them – the waters of the East Sea cannot wash away their filth.” Finally, the author delivers the harsh judgment of the Vietnamese people on the invaders’ crimes:

How could heaven and earth forgive them?
Who would argue that the gods and people can tolerate this?

Nguyễn Trãi was a renowned literary figure and an outstanding military strategist in Vietnamese history. His contributions to the nation were immense. As a literary author, his work Bình Ngô đại cáo emphasized the values of humanity and patriotism, expressing deep love for the people and the nation.

Humanity lies in ensuring the people's peace,
Military action must first aim to eliminate tyranny.

The opening of Bình Ngô đại cáo introduces the concept of righteousness with the aim of benefiting the people, to “eliminate tyranny,” ensuring the people’s happiness and well-being, which in turn brings prosperity to the nation.

The essay then highlights the various Vietnamese dynasties such as the Triệu, Đinh, Lý, Trần, which ruled the South, side by side with the Han, Tang, Song, Yuan dynasties of the North. This division of borders and distinct customs symbolizes the assertion of national sovereignty. By equating the kings of Vietnam with those of China, the author expresses pride in the nation’s glorious history.

Anyone who dares to infringe upon the sovereignty of a nation is destined for catastrophic defeat.

“Lưu Cung’s greed led to his downfall,
Triệu Tiết’s ambition cost him his life,
At the gates of Hàm Tử, Toa Đô was captured,
On the Bạch Đằng River, Ô Mã was slain.
The past serves as evidence,
The proof remains clear.”

Lưu Cung, Triệu Tiết, Toa Đô, and Ô Mã were famous military leaders from different periods of Chinese history who led invasions into Đại Việt, only to suffer devastating defeats that would echo through the ages. These events stand as proof of a sovereign nation capable of defeating even the mightiest foes.

A nation of “righteousness” uses the strength of its people to triumph over invaders who are numerous, powerful, and “unrighteous.” Nguyễn Trãi provides many concrete examples to support this, using noble and proud language to express his deep admiration for the country and its people throughout history.

The tone of the essay conveys grandeur and dignity when discussing the nation’s independence and sovereignty. It reflects the author’s deep patriotism, which, through the centuries, has remained a defining characteristic of the Vietnamese people.

While the first part of the text emphasizes righteousness and affirms national sovereignty, the second part of Bình Ngô đại cáo focuses on condemning the brutal crimes committed by the Ming invaders during their occupation of Vietnam.

The author addresses the period when the Hồ dynasty was in decline, and the Ming took advantage of the situation, using the pretext of “assisting the Trần and destroying the Hồ” to divide the country, incite rebellion, and ultimately seize the land.

“In the Hồ family, the administration was troubled,
Leading to the people’s deep resentment.
The ruthless Ming army seized the opportunity to wreak havoc,
The traitorous group even sold the country for glory.”

The foreign invaders were treacherous and their rule was savage and inhumane, comparable to acts of genocide as they slaughtered the people: “Roasting the innocent on a burning flame – burying the little ones in a pit of disaster.” They imposed heavy taxes to seize as much wealth as possible and forced people to risk their lives mining resources: “Diving into the sea to harvest gems, facing sharks and reptiles,” or “Panning for gold in the deadly mountains, where many lost their lives.”

Not only did they harm the people, but they also “destroyed insects, plants, and trees,” causing severe environmental devastation.

The consequences were devastating: many families were torn apart, society collapsed, and the people fell into extreme poverty and despair.

In the second part of Bình Ngô đại cáo, Nguyễn Trãi condemns the Ming invaders so vehemently that he claims “the Nam Sơn mountains cannot record their crimes” and “the waters of the Eastern Sea cannot cleanse their filth.” This reflects the author’s deep rage and frustration with the invaders and highlights the immense suffering of the poor and downtrodden people. The sheer cruelty and immorality displayed by the invaders raises the question: could heaven and earth ever forgive them?

Could heaven and earth forgive them?
Who dares say that the gods and people can bear this?

The second part of Bình Ngô đại cáo serves as a powerful denunciation of the brutal actions of the Ming invaders. It expresses the inevitable resistance and the eventual victory of justice, as oppression will always lead to revolt.

With its poetic images, sharp language, and dynamic tone, the opening verses of Bình Ngô đại cáo not only express the righteous cause and the nation’s independence but also highlight the unforgivable crimes of the enemy.

Nguyễn Trãi consistently emphasized the principle of righteousness for the Đại Việt nation. He advocated for this righteousness through specific arguments and denounced the crimes of the invaders with a powerful, blood-soaked, and tearful indictment.

For ages, regardless of the ideology or country, the issue of righteousness has always been regarded as the bond between individuals. It has become an unchanging moral truth that has existed since humanity's inception. Based on the fundamental ideas of righteousness, Nguyễn Trãi expanded and developed them into a rigorous argument. This became the foundation for exposing the crimes of the Ming invaders. Our struggle against these invaders is justified, reflecting the humanitarian ideals that all nations strive for. We fight for our independence and freedom, and that is entirely just and right. This is because we possess our own borders, a long-standing culture, history, and unique system—values that have been passed down through generations, and heroes have always risen in every era. This declaration strongly affirms the dignity and pride of a nation defending its rights.

While Lý Thường Kiệt’s *Nam quốc sơn hà* defined our national independence based on two aspects—territory and sovereignty—Nguyễn Trãi broadened this view to encompass many more dimensions. His perspective is deeper because Lý Thường Kiệt relied on celestial authority, while Nguyễn Trãi grounded his reasoning in historical reality. Nguyễn Trãi understood that our nation’s cultural heritage and historical traditions, upheld by its people, are what give us the strength to sacrifice ourselves for our country and future generations. The first section of the work plays a crucial role as it sets the foundation for the entire essay, affirming the core principles of righteousness and offering support for the ultimate triumph in the Lam Sơn uprising after ten years of hardship and struggle. Nguyễn Trãi consistently championed the values of the people and nation.

The author exposes the enemy’s schemes and crimes, revealing their false pretenses and hypocritical rhetoric. Standing firmly on the side of the nation and its people, Nguyễn Trãi unmasks the enemy's brutal policies. The invaders massacred civilians, drained the economy, and destroyed the environment. Meanwhile, our people were trapped in extreme poverty, with death awaiting them in the forests and seas. The enemy, growing ever more ruthless, acted like demons. Nguyễn Trãi exposed the lies of the invaders and clearly pointed out their intention to steal our land. The crimes they committed against our people were monstrous and savage. This passage expresses the author’s grief and anger towards the suffering of the people, and his tone shifts between righteous fury, sorrow, and a blend of political discourse and emotional poignancy.

Drawing upon the right to life of innocent people, the *Bình Ngô Đại cáo* can be viewed as a declaration of human rights. It serves as a historical lesson, a revival that laid the conditions for a stronger, brighter future for our nation.

This work is a heroic epic summarizing the tenacious and glorious resistance against the Ming invaders—a testament to the bravery and resilience of the Đại Việt people. It stands as a declaration of independence, embodying the values of righteousness, patriotism, and the national desire for peace.

The 'Bình Ngô Đại Cáo' by Nguyễn Trãi is regarded as the eternal declaration of independence of the nation, a perfect example of political literature that has resonated through the ages. Written in 1428, it was a public announcement of the independence and sovereignty of Vietnam. Each section of this work is rich in meaning, especially the introduction, which highlights the bright ideas of humanity and justice, as well as the pride and self-respect of the nation, juxtaposed with the brutalities of the Ming army's invasion.

Nguyễn Trãi composed the 'Bình Ngô Đại Cáo' on behalf of Lê Lợi to declare the victory over the Ming invaders. From the early days of the resistance in the difficult mountainous terrain to the brilliant days of victory, it marks an era of struggle but also of great pride for the Vietnamese people.

Right from the title 'Bình Ngô Đại Cáo,' the work evokes deep thought. 'Bình Ngô' refers to the act of overthrowing the invading Ming forces. The term 'Ngô' symbolizes the Ming dynasty, a reference to the origins of Chu Yuan-chang, the founder of the Ming dynasty. Throughout Vietnam’s history, the northern invaders were repelled, and the victories are a testament to the righteousness of the Đại Việt people's resistance.

'Đại Cáo' emphasizes the grand scale and importance of this declaration. The 'Bình Ngô Đại Cáo' is a national proclamation, announcing the defeat of the Ming forces and affirming the independence of the Vietnamese people. The first and second parts of the work lay the groundwork for the resistance. First, the idea of humanity and justice; second, a formal indictment of the crimes of the invaders.

In the opening, Nguyễn Trãi establishes the righteousness of the uprising:

'I have heard
The central idea of humanity lies in peace for the people,
When the army moves, it is to eliminate the oppressors.'

The concept of humanity, rooted in Eastern philosophy, refers to a relationship built on love and ethics. While Confucianism stresses moral relationships for social order, Nguyễn Trãi’s interpretation of humanity in this context becomes the foundation for the resistance, aiming to protect the well-being of the people by eliminating the invading forces, particularly the Ming.

In analyzing the first section of the 'Bình Ngô Đại Cáo,' it becomes clear that after justifying the righteousness of the resistance, Nguyễn Trãi firmly asserts the nation's sovereignty through irrefutable historical evidence, delivered with a bold and confident tone:

'Like our Đại Việt country from ancient times,
It has long been known for its culture.
........
Though strong and weak vary at times,
Heroes are always present in every era.'

Nguyễn Trãi asserts the nation's sovereignty through its cultural heritage, territory, customs, government, and its talented people. These are all distinctive features that define the Vietnamese identity. While we may not have as long a history as China, the Vietnamese people have always left a mark with their strong national spirit.

The listing of Đại Việt’s dynasties alongside China’s shows the equality and independence of the two nations. Việt also had independent states from the early stages of its history, asserting its sovereignty and self-respect by calling their rulers 'Emperors,' a title reserved for independent nations in historical contexts. This declaration emphasizes that Vietnam was an equal, sovereign nation and should not have been subject to Chinese invasions.

Another key factor in the success of any kingdom is the presence of talented individuals. Talent shapes the nation’s destiny. The history of Vietnam is rich with heroes who made the country proud, as well as countless unsung heroes who sacrificed their lives for the nation’s independence. The powerful rhetoric and convincing arguments, based on historical facts, demonstrate Nguyễn Trãi’s deep national consciousness.

After establishing the righteousness of the resistance and asserting the nation's sovereignty, Nguyễn Trãi highlights the shameful defeats of the Ming invaders:

'Lưu Cung’s ambition led to his failure,
Triệu Tiết’s arrogance led to his downfall.
The Hàm Tử Gate captured Toa Đô,
The Bạch Đằng River saw the death of Ô Mã.
The past reveals all,
And the evidence remains.'

Nguyễn Trãi lists the commanders who failed in their unjust invasion of Đại Việt—Lưu Cung, Triệu Tiết, Toa Đô, and Ô Mã. Their defeats were a result of their unjust war, driven by greed and the desire for power, which caused the suffering of innocent people.

Given the unjust nature of the invasion, their defeat was inevitable. Nguyễn Trãi references famous historical sites where previous victories occurred, such as the Bạch Đằng River, where Vietnamese forces wiped out the Nam Hán army, ending a thousand years of foreign domination. Mention of Hàm Tử evokes the memories of heroic victories by Trần Quang Khải's forces.

'Chương Dương took the enemy’s spear,
Hàm Tử captured their soldiers.'

While not directly referencing specific battles, these words evoke the grandeur of Vietnam's historic victories. These are the clearest examples of the idea of justice—the Vietnamese resistance was just, and the rightful victory would belong to the Vietnamese people.

After confirming the moral justification for the resistance and asserting the nation's sovereignty, Nguyễn Trãi exposes the brutal, expansionist nature of the Ming forces:

'The Hồ dynasty’s political strife caused turmoil,
Leading to widespread resentment among the people.
Taking advantage of the situation, the Ming forces sowed chaos,
And traitors sold out the nation for personal gain.'

During the troubled Hồ dynasty, with a divided nation, the Ming used the pretext of restoring the Trần dynasty to justify their invasion. But their true intention was to exploit the situation and invade for imperialistic purposes. Nguyễn Trãi makes this clear by emphasizing their treacherous motives.

Not only does he reveal the true face of the invaders, but Nguyễn Trãi also criticizes those traitors who, driven by greed for wealth and power, aided the invasion, throwing the nation into turmoil.

He further details the horrifying atrocities committed by the invaders:

'Burning the innocent people on cruel fires,
Buried the children in pits of misery.
Deceiving heaven and exploiting the people with countless schemes,
Waging war and creating hatred for twenty years.'

...
Ransacking resources, trapping animals, setting up snares everywhere,
Plundering the lives and livelihoods of the people.'

The invaders committed countless crimes—slaughtering innocent civilians, destroying families, and imposing unbearable taxes. Their greed knew no bounds, and they ravaged the land for its resources. The invading forces caused widespread suffering, devastating the environment, and exploiting the labor of the people. The crimes of the Ming army were a direct attack on the people’s lives and livelihoods.

These ruthless actions highlight Nguyễn Trãi’s deep compassion for his people and his fierce condemnation of the invaders' cruelty. The portrayal of the enemy as barbaric and ruthless illustrates the horrors the Vietnamese people endured under foreign domination.

'How cruel! The Southern bamboo cannot record their crimes,
How filthy! The Eastern Sea cannot wash away their stench.
How could heaven and earth forgive them?
Who can bear such things?'

The crimes are so horrific that they cannot be fully described, and no amount of cleansing could remove their stain. The suffering of the people is beyond words, and even the natural world seems to rage against the invaders’ actions. Through his compelling reasoning and masterful rhetoric, Nguyễn Trãi argues that the resistance was fought for justice, to protect the land, to preserve the nation’s sovereignty, and to defend the people’s right to live in peace and happiness. The passionate tone and literary devices used enhance the powerful message of the work.

In the succinct and powerful two sections of this work, Nguyễn Trãi brilliantly expresses the righteous cause of the Vietnamese resistance while exposing the brutality of the invaders. The 'Bình Ngô Đại Cáo' is not only a declaration of victory but also a powerful testament to the fierce national pride and patriotism of the Vietnamese people.