1. Sample Essay 1
'Bình Ngô đại cáo' is one of the finest literary works, capturing the depth of Nguyễn Trãi's thoughts. In Vietnamese literature, this text is held in high esteem, regarded as a timeless masterpiece of rhetoric. The success of this remarkable work can largely be attributed to its artistic contributions. The piece stands as an exceptional political essay, known for its brilliant and skillful argumentative techniques.
The artistry in argumentation is masterfully showcased, beginning with the structure of the text itself. It is divided into three distinct sections, each aligned with a different theme yet tightly interconnected, creating a cohesive whole. The first part presents the moral argument. The second part lays out the factual basis. The final section is a bold declaration of independence.
To establish the moral foundation of the entire work, Nguyễn Trãi begins with a moral premise:
“Việc nhân nghĩa cốt ở yên dân
Quân điếu phạt trước lo trừ bạo.”
He affirms the just stance of the Lam Sơn forces, emphasizing that the core principle of their struggle is ' nhân nghĩa' (humaneness). For Nguyễn Trãi, the first aspect of 'nhân nghĩa' is to 'ensure peace for the people,' providing them with a life of security, happiness, and sufficiency. In the historical context of that time, to achieve peace for the people, the invaders must be expelled, restoring the land to its rightful owners.
Next, he presents the objective truth of Đại Việt's independent existence: “Như nước Đại Việt ta từ trước/…/ Song hào kiệt đời nào cũng có”. The author asserts that the existence of the nation is a self-evident, long-established fact. Moreover, he identifies the fundamental factors that establish national independence: territorial boundaries, customs, history, and heroes. The opening of the work reads like a declaration of independence, where Nguyễn Trãi introduces the principle of justice and proves it through the historical reality of Vietnam. Through parallelism, listing, and the use of self-evident language, Nguyễn Trãi firmly reaffirms Vietnam's independence.
After establishing this foundation, in the second part of the text, Nguyễn Trãi provides the practical evidence: exposing the invaders' crimes and the arduous resistance struggle that led to ultimate victory.
He condemns the enemy’s crimes from the standpoint of moral righteousness, revealing their malicious plot of “Phù trần diệt Hồ,” a long-standing ambition of Chinese dynasties. Nguyễn Trãi presents a series of powerful accusations, enumerating the atrocities committed by the Ming forces: “Nướng dân đen trên ngọn lửa hung tàn/ Vùi con đỏ xuống hầm tai vạ.” For over two decades, the Ming military looted the people’s wealth, destroyed nature, and caused untold suffering. To summarize the enemy’s crimes, Nguyễn Trãi declares: “Độc ác thay trúc Nam Sơn không ghi hết tội/ Dơ bẩn thay nước Đông Hải không rửa sạch mùi.” He exposes the invaders’ actions while also hinting at the reason for the resistance: the suffering of the people became unbearable, prompting the Lam Sơn forces to rise against the enemy.
At first, the resistance faced many challenges: the enemy was at its strongest, and the Lam Sơn forces lacked skilled leaders. Despite the difficulties, the resistance persevered, trusting in their righteous cause. They also found an effective strategy: “Thế trận xuất kì, lấy yếu chống mạnh/ Dùng quân mai phục, lấy ít địch nhiều.” After overcoming these early struggles, the resistance forces grew stronger, consistently winning significant victories, overwhelming the enemy: “Trận Bồ Đằng sấm vang chớp giật/ Miền Trà Lân trúc chẻ tro bay.” In contrast to the rising momentum of the Lam Sơn forces, the invaders were in disarray: some begged for mercy, others trampled one another in a desperate attempt to flee. If the invaders were fierce and merciless in their initial invasion, the Lam Sơn forces, upon gaining the upper hand, extended mercy: “Thần vũ chẳng giết hại, thể lòng trời ta mở đường hiếu sinh.” They gave the invaders safe passage, showing their commitment to the people’s well-being after years of warfare.
The work concludes with a powerful declaration of independence: “Xã tắc từ đây vững bền/ Giang sơn từ đây đổi mới.” The war has ended, the country is independent, and a new era begins for the nation. The final lines express pride, confidence, and hope for the future of the country.
The work's structure and reasoning are exceptionally tight, with each part intricately connected. It opens with the moral premise, progresses through the development of the argument, and concludes with a resolution. To strengthen the impact of his argument, Nguyễn Trãi skillfully employs various rhetorical devices such as comparison, enumeration, and more.
Beyond logical reasoning and rhetorical techniques, the writer’s emotions are key to the text’s enduring impact. When discussing the enemy's crimes, his tone conveys pain, hatred, and sorrow; while recounting the early days of the rebellion, the tone shifts to one of uncertainty, anxiety, and hope.
'Bình Ngô đại cáo' stands as a model of argumentative artistry. Through its brilliant rhetorical techniques, the work showcases Nguyễn Trãi’s genius, as well as the noble and heroic struggle of the Lam Sơn resistance, and reflects the deep humaneness of the Vietnamese people.

2. Sample Essay 2

3. Reference Paper 3
In terms of literature, Nguyễn Trãi is considered one of the most outstanding writers in the history of medieval Vietnamese literature. He composed across various genres, producing remarkable works in each. Not only a deeply insightful poet, Nguyễn Trãi was also an exceptional writer of political literature. He left behind a significant body of political writings (such as the “Quân trung từ mệnh tập,” and the royal edicts under the Lê dynasty...), but it is enough to look at his “Bình Ngô đại cáo” to see the brilliant mastery of political discourse in his work.
One could say that “Bình Ngô đại cáo” reaches a model level in its precise identification of the subject and purpose, as well as the use of appropriate rhetorical techniques, a tightly structured framework, and sharp arguments.
The subject of this political text is not only the Minh invaders and the monstrous crimes they committed against the people and the country, but also the Lam Sơn army and the people of Đại Việt. “Bình Ngô đại cáo” stands as a monumental expression of patriotism, a declaration of national sovereignty, a condemnation of the enemy’s atrocities, and a heroic anthem for the Lam Sơn uprising. This is the very purpose Nguyễn Trãi aimed to achieve.
The rhetorical mastery of the text is first demonstrated in the creative structuring of the work. “Bình Ngô đại cáo” is organized into four tightly-knit sections. In the first section, Nguyễn Trãi establishes the principle of justice as the solid foundation for all subsequent arguments in the text.
Within this principle of justice, Nguyễn Trãi presents two key ideas: the doctrine of benevolence:
The core of benevolence lies in bringing peace to the people
The army must first punish to rid the land of tyranny.
And the truth of the independent existence and sovereignty of Đại Việt:
Like the land of Đại Việt from ancient times
Long known for its enduring culture...
In the second section, using twelve couplets of four-character verses, the author delivers a powerful indictment of the Minh invaders’ crimes. The indictment follows a logical sequence, starting with the exposure of their invasion plot:
When the Hồ dynasty fell into confusion,
It stirred resentment and hatred among the people.
The fanatical Minh troops seized the opportunity to create chaos,
The traitors, selling the nation for personal gain.
Next, the author condemns the malevolent governing policies and strongly denounces the enemy’s criminal actions:
Roasting the common people over a vicious flame,
Buried the innocent beneath the pit of disaster...
The third section, the longest of the text, serves as a heroic anthem of the Lam Sơn uprising. Divided into two phases, Nguyễn Trãi vividly portrays the figure of General Lê Lợi and the grand scope of the rebellion.
Finally, in the fourth section, the author concludes with a declaration of restored national independence and a historical lesson:
The nation’s foundation is now secure,
The lands are now renewed...
Nguyễn Trãi’s rhetorical brilliance is evident not only in the text’s structure but also in the astute logic behind his arguments. The doctrines of benevolence and national independence serve as the undeniable foundation for his reasoning. First, the author establishes premises rooted in truth, bringing them into real-world practice to point out what is unjust to denounce and what is just to affirm, ultimately leading to a clear conclusion.
The political discourse is further strengthened by its deep connection between theory and practice. For instance, when discussing the objective truth of Đại Việt’s sovereign independence, the author provides firm historical evidence from every angle: territorial boundaries, customs, culture, history, and unique governance:
Like the land of Đại Việt... it too has
This connection between political theory and practical reality is strongly evident in later sections of the text.
Another aspect that showcases Nguyễn Trãi’s rhetorical mastery is his use of style. “Bình Ngô đại cáo” blends narrative, lyrical, and epic heroism. The author does not limit himself to a single stylistic approach but harmonizes them seamlessly in his writing. In the third section, when reflecting on the early phase of the rebellion, focusing on the psychological aspect of General Lê Lợi, Nguyễn Trãi integrates lyrical with narrative style:
When the people are gone, it’s like gazing into the vast, distant sea,
Only I must hurry, saving the drowning soul...
When portraying the broader image of the Lam Sơn revolt, from its characters to its language, colors, and rhythms, everything is infused with the spirit of an epic anthem:
The sword sharpens the stone, the mountain’s rocks will wear away,
The elephant drinks water, the river must dry up.
Strike one battle, and the enemies are wiped out,
Strike two battles, and the birds scatter in defeat.
The mighty winds blow, sweeping away the dry leaves,
The pine trees break the dam as if smashing open the gates...
Thus, from its structure to its arguments and stylistic techniques, everything in “Bình Ngô đại cáo” demonstrates that it is an outstanding work of political literature. With “Bình Ngô đại cáo,” Nguyễn Trãi rightfully stands as one of the greatest political writers of medieval Vietnamese literature.

