Buzz
Viewed in one perspective, everyone comprehends what intelligence signifies; observed from another viewpoint, nobody truly grasps its essence. Essentially, individuals harbor unconscious beliefs – referred to as 'implicit theories' – about intelligence, yet its exact nature remains elusive. This section explores how people conceptualize intelligence, whatever it may fundamentally represent.
But why should we concern ourselves with people's perceptions of intelligence, rather than simply valuing its actual manifestations? There exist at least four reasons why people's conceptions of intelligence hold significance.
B
Firstly, implicit theories of intelligence influence how individuals perceive and assess their own intellectual capabilities as well as those of others. Understanding these evaluations sheds light on how people judge the language development of their children and the appropriate timing for correcting their speech. More broadly, these implicit theories also dictate when parents believe their children are prepared for various cognitive tasks. In professional settings, hiring decisions hinge on interviewers' implicit theories of intelligence. Moreover, personal relationships often hinge on such theories. In summary, understanding implicit theories of intelligence is crucial, given their pervasive influence on everyday decision-making.
C
Secondly, the implicit theories of scientists eventually lead to their explicit theories. Therefore, it is valuable to uncover these implicit theories. Implicit theories offer a framework that is beneficial in delineating the overall scope of a phenomenon – particularly one that is not well understood. These implicit theories can indicate which aspects of the phenomenon have received more or less attention in previous studies.
D
Thirdly, implicit theories can be instrumental when a researcher suspects that existing explicit theories are erroneous or misleading. If an examination of implicit theories reveals little alignment between current implicit and explicit theories, the implicit theories may be incorrect. However, it must also be considered that the explicit theories themselves may be flawed and require correction or augmentation. For instance, certain implicit theories of intelligence imply the necessity for expanding some of our current explicit theories of the concept.
E
Lastly, comprehending implicit theories of intelligence can illuminate differences in development and across cultures. As previously mentioned, people hold varying expectations regarding cognitive performances at different stages of childhood. These discrepancies partly stem from cultural influences. For example, expectations for children enrolled in Western-style education systems are likely to differ from those for children not involved in such systems.
F
I have proposed three primary implicit theories concerning the relationship between intelligence and society at large (Sternberg, 1997). These might be referred to as Hamiltonian, Jeffersonian, and Jacksonian. These perspectives are not strictly based on, but rather loosely inspired by the philosophies of Alexander Hamilton, Thomas Jefferson, and Andrew Jackson – three prominent statesmen in American history.
G
The Hamiltonian perspective, akin to the Platonic viewpoint, posits that individuals are born with varying levels of intelligence. According to this view, those less intellectually endowed require the guidance of more intelligent individuals, whether labeled as government officials or, in Plato's terms, philosopher-kings. Herrnstein and Murray (1994) seem to share this belief when discussing the emergence of a cognitive elite (high IQ) tasked with assuming responsibility for the largely irresponsible masses of non-elite (low IQ) individuals who cannot independently care for themselves. Left to their own devices, the less intelligent would inevitably create disorder, as has historically been observed.
H
The Jeffersonian perspective asserts that individuals should have equal opportunities, yet not everyone takes advantage of these opportunities equally, nor are they equally rewarded for their achievements. According to this viewpoint, individuals are rewarded based on their accomplishments, assuming equal opportunities. Those with lower achievements do not receive the same rewards as high achievers. In contrast to the Hamiltonian tradition, the goal of education in the Jeffersonian view is not to promote an elite class but rather to enable children to fully utilize their skills. My own beliefs align closely with this perspective. (Sternberg, 1997)
I
The Jacksonian outlook emphasizes the equality of all individuals, not just as human beings but also in terms of their capabilities. According to this view, any person can serve equally well in government, on a jury, or in almost any position of responsibility, except for roles requiring specialized skills, which can be acquired. In this democratic view, there is no desire for institutions that might favor one group over another.
J
Implicit theories regarding intelligence and its societal implications warrant careful consideration, as they often form the underlying assumptions for explicit theories and experimental designs that are subsequently viewed as scientific contributions. Until scholars openly discuss their implicit theories and thereby reveal their assumptions, they risk misunderstanding the viewpoints expressed in discussions of explicit theories and empirical data.
Questions 1-3
Reading Passage 1 has ten sections, A-J
Which part contains the following information?
Write the correct letter, A-J, in boxes 1-3 on your answer sheet.
1 information about how non-scientists’ assumptions about intelligence influence their behavior towards others
2 a reference to lack of clarity over the definition of intelligence
3 the point that a researcher’s implicit and explicit theories may be very different
Questions 4-6
Do the following statements align with the assertions of the author in Reading Passage 1?
In boxes 4-6 on your answer sheet, write
YES if the statement agrees with the claims of the writer
NO if the statement contradicts the claims of the writer
NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this
4 Slow language development in children is likely to prove disappointing to their parents.
5 People’s expectations of what children should gain from education are universal.
6 Scholars may discuss theories without fully understanding each other.
Questions 7-13
Look at the following statements (Questions 7-13) and the list of theories below.
Match each statement with the correct theory, A, B or C.
Write the correct letter, A, B or C, in boxes 7-13 on your answer sheet.
NB You can use any letter more than once.7 It is preferable for identical opportunities to be accessible to everyone.
8 No section of society should have preferential treatment at the expense of another.
9 People should only gain benefits on the basis of what they actually achieve.
10 Variation in intelligence begins at birth.
11 The more intelligent people should be in positions of power.
12 Everyone can develop the same abilities.
13 People of low intelligence are likely to lead uncontrolled lives.
List of Theories
A Hamiltonian
B Jeffersonian
C Jacksonian
Responses
1. B (Đoạn B, “For example, parents’ implicit … will determine at what ages they believe their children are ready to perform various cognitive tasks.)
2. A (Đoạn A, “but no one knows for certain what it actually is. This chapter addresses how people conceptualize intelligence, whatever it may actually be.”)
3. D (Đoạn D, “implicit theories can be useful when an investigator suspects that existing explicit theories are wrong or misleading.)
4. NOT GIVEN (Không có thông tin về cách học nhanh hay chậm)
5. NO (Đoạn E, “people have expectations … for children who do not participate in such schooling. → Những kỳ vọng dành cho trẻ em không phải là trên toàn thế giới, mà chỉ xuất hiện ở một số nền văn hoá cụ thể.)
6. YES (Đoạn J, “Until scholars are able to discuss their implicit theories and thus their assumptions, … their explicit theories and their data. → Các học giả trao đổi ý tưởng với nhau về những thuyết mình đưa ra mặc dù không hiểu hoàn toàn ý tưởng của nhau.)
7. B (Đoạn H, “The Jeffersonian view is that people should have equal opportunities,…)
8. C (Đoạn I, “In this view, we do not need or want any institutions that might lead to favoring one group over another.)
9. B (Đoạn H, “but rather to allow children the opportunities to make full use of the skills they have.”)
10. A (Đoạn G, “The Hamiltonian view, which is similar to the Platonic view, is that people are born with different levels of intelligence…”
11. A (Đoạn G, “Herrnstein and Murray (1994) seem to have shared … largely irresponsible masses of non-elite (low-IQ) people who cannot take care of themselves. )
12. C (Đoạn I, “people are essentially intersubstitutable … favoring one group over another.)
13. A (Section G, “ for the largely irresponsible masses of non-elite (low-IQ) individuals who cannot care for themselves.”) IELTS Exam Preparation
